The modus of fictitiousness, being the vertex parameter of metaphorization, remains in the semantic structure of metaphorical meaning. Here it can appear in full or reduced form - from the form "as if" to "as" - depending on the function of the metaphor. The presence/absence in a metaphorically formed meaning of such characteristic features as objectivity/non-objectivity, descriptiveness/evaluativeness of its semantics, neutrality/expressiveness, ugliness/figurativeness ( cf. also opposition of dead/living metaphor), as well as epiphoric/diaphoric (i.e., reliance on empirical knowledge or on hypothetical, on assumption. Therefore, the classification in this work is based on a modification in the metaphor of the principle of fictitiousness. However, as a criterion To distinguish between types of metaphor, we used the established tradition to single out in the meaning of a metaphor not a mode, but a "purpose" - a function.The latter consists either in describing the object as such (identifying metaphor) or its features (predicate metaphor), or expressing the subject's evaluative attitude to denoted (evaluative metaphor) or emotive attitude (evaluative-expressive metaphor), or represent an object as existing in some artistically constructed world (figurative or figurative-aesthetic metaphor). And since metaphor is the most productive means of adapting a language to a constantly changing world view and understanding of the world, it is natural that here it is possible to single out only spheres of domination of one or another of the functions mentioned above.
<…>Below we offer a typology of metaphors that reflects the description of metaphorization and its results from the "top", i.e. with their explicit organization, and completes with deeper layers of this structuration, the watershed between which is what is commonly called "internal form". It is this essence that constitutes, from our point of view, the skeleton of metaphor.
Essential for the ontological aspect of considering the category of meaning, the separation of nominative meanings that reflect the scope of the observed, and meanings that reflect areas that are not given in direct sensations, but comprehended speculatively, is also reflected in the types of metaphorical processes. So, for metaphors that call the observed and felt from the sphere of being associated with empirical activity, with physically perceived objects, the dominance of the identifying or indicative function is characteristic. In these cases, physically representable images of such objects emerge in the mind. (tail - about the end of a rope, whip or line, head- in relation to the beginning of the train, column, etc.). On the basis of this type of metaphorization, a “concrete” (in traditional terminology) meaning is formed with the reduction of the cognitive principle and the annihilation of the fictitious mode: already existing objects do not need to be “discovered”, since they are known in practice, nor in the assumption of their similarity to other objects. The need exists only for a name for such objects. As a rule, these are "natural genera" or artifacts of the type mushroom stalk, eyeball, peephole"hole in the door" visor"canopy over the front door", etc. And vice versa, in metaphors that model the display of objects of the invisible world, the "top" is the hypothetical-cognitive modality (as if X had the characteristics of Y-a). The semantics of such metaphors organizes either an abstract meaning, or a meaning characteristic of "common names", or a value of a prepositive type, reflecting non-substantially oriented states, events, and also facts. (motion - as a concept of the form of existence of matter, the birth of a new era, a difficult character, the bitterness of defeat etc.).
Thus, the difference between the physically perceived world and the world given in direct sensations corresponds clearly and in a sufficiently structured way to the difference in the basic types of metaphor. One of them identifies the object, semantically describing it as an already existing reality, while the other performs a cognitive function and forms a new concept, organizing it through associative similarity mechanisms, and based on such modeling creates a predicate type of value that displays not objects, but features abstracted from them. signs. In essence, here we are talking about the fact that N.D. Arutyunova calls identifying and predicate metaphors, but taking into account the role of the modus of fictitiousness and the above modalities in this description. The fact that the metaphor, as it were, repeats the distinction between concrete and abstract meanings, which is characteristic of the primary nomination, is quite natural: the metaphor "prepares" secondary meanings of various types (autonomous, lexical, connected, idiom), adapting their model formation to the delimitation of spatially perceived reality that is universal for a person. or characterized on the basis of the category of time and its aspects.
An identifying, or indicative, metaphor generates the type of meaning that is commonly called descriptive (concrete, portraying, etc.). The specificity of this type of metaphor is the similarity of its signified and the image that becomes the internal form of the metaphorical meaning. At the same time, similarity here is "given the appearance of identity." It is this form that is the realization of the principle of fictitiousness, without which it is impossible to overcome the barrier between different logical orders of the designated and auxiliary image. How can you not say * Dream the sea; * Hide a dream etc., it is also impossible to combine the knee joint and the calyx in one natural taxonomic representation, as is done in the metaphor kneecap, the base of the mountain and the sole (cf. foot of the mountain), feather for writing and feather goose, table leg and a living being, since they belong to different taxonomic genera or species.
Hybrids like centaurs and mermaids are conceivable only in a mythological representation, but just real objects do not tolerate logical disorder in semantic display. For this reason, the mode of fictitiousness in the identifying metaphor is reduced: here the similarity is based on real similarity, therefore, an elementary comparison operation (with its modus how), in order to orient perception not towards the identification and synthesis of the main object of the metaphor and its figurative-associative complex, but towards a reference to features of similarity in function, form, consistency, etc.
So, the identifying metaphor and, accordingly, the metaphorical meaning of the same function at the top retain only the comparative how- mode, although in its outcome lay the fictitious mode characteristic of all metaphors.
The identifying metaphor operates in the sphere of denoting reality, directly perceived by the senses, and replenishes mainly the stock of the lexicon that provides the names of objects, object-oriented actions, relationships and qualities. (cat"tool for lifting objects", ladle excavator, ridge mountains, space dust, numerous names of realities and actions that arose during the war, such as nest machine gun, cauldron, tongue etc., cf. also go or to stand - about traffic; curl - about roads, rivers; bite - about dividing something. special tongs, etc.).
The meaning of an identifying metaphor is not a product of semantic synthesis leading to the emergence of a new object, but a reflection of the properties of an already existing reality. It is to this type of metaphorical nomination that the name of the process, designated by Aristotle as “transfer of name” (or, less successfully, as “transference of meaning”), fits: here the naming of what takes place in the world as a being is carried out, displayed in the form of a concept and seeks verbal expression and fixing the latter as a name, and not the creation of a new concept, hitherto non-existent.
The identification function is not compatible with subjectively oriented modes for two reasons: this type of meaning is communicatively adapted to, on the one hand, serve as a means of indicating the object of reality, and from the other is to provide a mapping of the world as objectively given. Associated with this is the expressive neutrality of meaning and syntactic prohibitions on implementation in a syntactic position intended to identify metaphors of other types, as well as the extinction of the figurative-associative complex (or the base of the internal form) in identifying metaphors. Wed, for example, * Stump doesn't go anywhere(about a person) or the now hard to imagine idea that the secondary meanings of words are based turn(machine gun) or dot(Fire) lie metaphors.
All of the above indicates that the identifying metaphor is a product of linguo-creative technique in the field of empirical human activity, and not the actual cognitive process. That is why it is characterized by epiphorism, i.e. neutralization of fictitiousness, as well as synesthesia, i.e. psychological tension that arises as a result of the combination in the metaphor of categorically heterogeneous entities. To obtain expressive effects, periphrases are used: grave- last resort etc.
Metaphor is able to create new concepts in the field of designation of non-objective reality. Such a metaphor can be considered a hypothetical-cognitive model, bearing in mind its main function - the creation of new concepts.
Cognitive metaphor leads to the formation of an abstract meaning.<…>Cognitive metaphor likens the heterogeneous and identifies the similar in order to synthesize a new concept. It is hardly possible to establish an ontological similarity between a toad and a girl, but in Czech tabka denotes a young girl, thanks to a metaphorical rethinking; between machine memory And human memory there is no real similarity, but it is established as a result of the assumption on the basis of the general feature "capacity for long-term storage of information" - as if the machine had human "tablets" of memory.
It is appropriate to note that the identifying and cognitive functions (as in machine memory) this is a feature of metaphor in the world of knowledge. Names with "double" semantics - concrete and abstract - are not unusual in natural language (cf. letter"type of correspondence" and "content", etc. It is precisely such cases that constitute intermediate phenomena. If in an identifying metaphor the modality of fictitiousness is reduced in its product to a comparison revealed at the figurative-associative level (the nose of a ship is like the nose of a man etc.), then in the cognitive metaphor this mode, having played its synthesizing role, tends to annihilation. The principle of fictitiousness underlying such a metaphor prevents the meaning of the name from fulfilling the nominative function, so the living image in such a name is erased, and the meaning tends to generalize.
The problem of verifiable cognitive metaphor is basically a logical problem, not a linguistic one. For linguistics, the only important thing is that in the cognitive metaphor the fictitious mode fades away - it dies along with the realization of the irrelevance of the figurative-associative complex for the true metaphor designated. Wed such, still alive, cognitive metaphors that have not settled down epistemically and which are called pedagogical metaphors; electron cloud, possible world, hard(or solid) designator etc., and such already obliterated concepts as level, or tier, language, atomic nucleus and etc.<…>the extinct cognitive metaphor acquires the properties of an epiphora, begins to function as a neutral name.
<…>Cognitive metaphor is characteristic not only for scientific or journalistic speech. It is also common in everyday language. This metaphor is especially productive in those areas that are associated with the spheres of thinking, feelings, social actions, morality, etc.: the limit of the imaginary, find a solution to the issue, anger has passed or dry up, save or keep love, lose authority, field of activity, the path of good etc.
Cognitive metaphor creates the most difficult layer for epistemological research, because it is not yet clear to what extent the linguistic picture of the world, created with the participation of this metaphor, affects the perception of the world. Obviously, the difference between such combinations as way or path of good(cf. * the path of evil, where the prohibition is associated with positive evaluative semantics and the emotive effect of solemnity created by the word path); false authority And exaggerated authority; excerpts or scraps of thoughts etc. - this difference is the result of the pragmatic load of words with evaluative or emotive-evaluative semantics.
The identifying and cognitive metaphors are the two basic types, and the figurative metaphor can be considered the third. On its basis, together with the function of identification or cognitive reflection of reality, leading to the formation of a new concept, evaluative and evaluative-expressive metaphors are formed.
In the parametric description of a figurative metaphor, following the same postulate that the result of a metaphor is the "top of a flooded model", it would be necessary to define the figurative meaning. However, such a meaning is devoid of taxonomically defined features, since it is always an occasional use derived from the context.
In order to reveal the reason for this phenomenon, let us turn to the consideration of the top metaphor for this type of function - figurative-aesthetic. The latter is usually understood as the focus on such an artistic impact on the recipient, which evokes in him a value attitude to the world, defined in a range of categories of beauty or ugliness. It follows from this definition that the figurative-associative complex of a metaphor and its aesthetic-figurative effect do not coincide, although the former appears as a motive for creating the latter. Any metaphor passes through the stage of figurativeness (which is evidenced by the "original" applicability of the principle of fictitiousness to any process of metaphorization), but the figurative-associative complex, having played the role of a filter, can go into the internal form of a linguistic means, or can acquire the status of an artistic image of the world - its otherness . Wed description of winter with an orientation to the pictorial row by Pushkin: Came, crumbled; hung in tufts on the boughs of oaks; She lay down with wavy carpets Among the fields, around the hills ...- and Pasternak: Pavement in the mounds. Between the snow forks Frozen bottles of bare black ice floes.
<…>figurative metaphor does not fully preserve the principle of fictitiousness and, consequently, its mode, as evidenced by the possibility of interpreting a literary text not through this mode, which destroys all the charm of the work, but through modality in the form of a conditional assumption as if, having a less destructive effect on the text itself: Snow hung on the branches as if in clumps(cf. *as if they were shreds). This gives reason to believe that. the fictitious mode is reduced in figurative metaphor to the form as if.
The principle of fictitiousness in its full form is too "intrusive" and rational for figurative and poetic metaphors. For this reason, it is reduced in them, changing into the mode of a possible world - as if, which does not require any other presuppositions in this version of it, except for the assumption of similarity. Similarity, which is perceived as a possible identity that does not end with a semantic synthesis, gives rise to synergy and diaphora - the living two-dimensionality of metaphor, creating psychological tension. The fact that the figurative metaphor does not become a dictionary confirms its dynamism and connection with the individual picture of the world, i.e. with the personal thesaurus of a native speaker - after all, many metaphors remain unsolved or give rise to different interpretations.
<…>The figurativeness of a metaphor can easily be combined with an identifying function (hung in tufts, rolls of lanterns), creating the "backstage" of the universe, and with the cognitive, bringing with it the "embryo" of a new world comprehension (cf. pedagogical metaphors such as The proposal is a little drama; Proposition - the skeleton of a sentence etc.), but combinations with evaluative-intellectual and evaluative-expressive functions are the most productive. Wed in the poems of B.L. Pasternak clearly negative evaluative mode: While we are climbing the Caucasus And in a suffocating frame Kura is crawling with a gas attack To the Aragva, crushed by mountains - or evaluative-expressive coloring: Dawn cold viciously Creeps into the pits, And in the jungle the dampness of requiem and incense.
So, a figurative (or already figurative-artistic) metaphor performs an aesthetic function as the result of an irrational, but still speculatively permissible combination (Winter hung on the branches of oaks; Grow into the ground with your feet of blood etc.). This combination creates psychological tension for the perceiver of the metaphor, and the solution of its secret leads to an aesthetic effect - pleasure or disgust (in their more or less vivid awareness). A figurative metaphor is by no means always marked stylistically, but it is never neutral in terms of emotional impact, and therefore creates one or another expressive effect, but not atomically, but as a function of a holistic context. The figurative metaphor is textually "unlimited". And although in the field of designating spatially perceived objects it can be embodied in one word, but most often a figurative metaphor is a complete artistic canvas or sketch with its own idea, composition and colors. A figurative metaphor is a linguistic material with which the author of a work “draws the world” (including in everyday speech).
In evaluative metaphor, the mode of fictitiousness dominates in the same reduced form as in cognitive and figurative. However, the fact that the evaluation itself is "tuned" over the descriptive display of the object (objective or non-objective) gives the fictitious mode a special shade: the motive of evaluation is attached to the descriptive display, thus introducing the object into the scope of the evaluation scale. In other words, if in an indicative metaphor the motive dies, in a cognitive one it tends to be erased, in a figurative one it serves as a means of recreating a living idea of what is designated as its other being, then in an evaluative metaphor the motive, or internal form, acts as a catalyst for an evaluative reaction.
At the top of the estimated value, there is a judgment about the value of the properties of the designated object according to some aspect and basis. And the evaluative metaphor itself "works" mainly not in the sphere of denoting the qualitative and quantitative parameters of objects, but facts. Its main tools are predicatives: adjectives, verbs, hidden semantic predicates like sharp eyesight, rush(about the time), die of laughter, claws of death, on the wings of victory, wall of indifference, iron logic etc. It is impossible not to notice that the evaluative metaphor highlights some feature displayed in the descriptive part of the meaning. This sign becomes the semantic peak of the estimated value along with the assessment. Yes, metaphor. acute hearing evaluates the ability for quick and accurate perception due to the figurative-associative complex "as if to penetrate with an edge inside something." and the indicated signs, which leads to the evaluation "and the speaker believes that this is" good ".
The evaluative metaphor itself is emotively neutral. It combines only two modes - the mode of fictitiousness, reduced to the form as if(i.e., introducing a certain standard, or a stereotype as possible), and an evaluative mode, expressing the attitude of the speaker to the designated, based on the motivating metaphor complex in the range of a certain scale ("good" ... "bad"). Thus, in evaluative predicates of the type deep forest it is displayed that the forest is, as it were, deaf, i.e. "very overgrown, far from habitation and roads, so that echoes of human activity do not penetrate into it"; in rush(about time) is displayed as if very much running time, but here the evaluative mode can have both a "plus" and a "minus" value (cf. good/bad time goes by so fast).
The evaluative metaphor, originally figurative, develops in the language, as well as the cognitive metaphor, losing figurativeness: it must get rid of psychological tension so as not to distract the recipient's attention to the motivating image, since it is most often insignificant for the true basis of the assessment. Expression square chin, for example, speaks of its irregular shape, close to square, but still oval in reality. Therefore, in this metaphor, the class of objects being evaluated is narrowed, as it were, by square chins. Evaluation without an image and without expressiveness - such is the final content of an evaluative metaphor that acquires the properties of an epiphora in the process of functioning.
Evaluatively expressive, or emotively colored, metaphor has the most complex structure. Everything that is characteristic of the architectonics of the evaluative metaphor is also included in the evaluative-expressive metaphor, but at the same time, the fictitious mode is preserved in it in its entirety - as if. The internal form, which determines the assessment and, possibly, aesthetic significance, does not have such a clear tendency to annihilation (unless it is erased by time and the usualness of the figurative-associative complex for native speakers). The mode of emotivity also joins these modes. By emotivity we understand the "linguistic expression of emotions" with the significant addition that the "place" for this in the semantics of the word's meaning is the connotation (and the text - the subtext). Connotation is that macro-component of meaning, which includes, along with the figurative-associative complex, turning into an internal form, emotive modality and stylistic marking.
The pinnacle of the evaluative-expressive metaphor is the emotive modality, but it arises due to the fact that the image is preserved, which is realized because the "original" mode of fictitiousness is preserved in this metaphor in its entirety of form - as if. In order to preserve the effect of psychological tension, which in turn causes an emotional impact on the recipient, it is necessary to keep the metaphor in a diaphoric state, i.e. its figurative-associative complex should be perceived as alive, which is provided by the modus as if X were like Y(with respect to Q). Such a semantic state characterizes not only the process of metaphorization, but also its product - an emotively colored, or evaluative-expressive, meaning.
This meaning, reflecting reality and containing information about its value for the speaker, expresses an emotional attitude towards the signified, correlated with feelings-relations such as contempt, the desire to destroy someone, the desire to express censure or, conversely, delight, admiration, etc. The implementation of such a range of feelings-relationships, set in the range of emotionally colored approval / disapproval, is closely related to the background knowledge that allows the speaker to take on or assign himself a priority role in some life conflict, considering the object of the feeling-relationship to be somehow inferior. , imperfect, etc. Wed replicas typical of texts containing emotively colored meanings of words and expressions: with contempt / disdain, with delight / admiration etc. (X said). The solution of these roles in the text is possible on the basis of knowledge of its presuppositions.
It is impossible not to notice that these emotive modifiers of general evaluative feelings-relations approve/disapprove explanatory dictionaries tend to be used as expressive coloring labels. Beautiful and ugly, light and heavy thoughts are heaped one on top of the other, crowded together, squeezing the juice out of each other and they look like they will squeak from the crush(Chekhov) (here evaluative-expressive metaphors light, heavy are introduced by evaluative beautiful And ugly and all together prepare figurative - piled up, crowded, squeezing out the juices, they’ll squeal from the crush at a glance).
<…>In the evaluative-expressive metaphor, similarity also prevails over identity, as in the evaluative one, which is ontologically natural: the main object of the metaphor is what is in the world (some property or state of affairs), and the auxiliary complex is the figurative-associative features of a certain quasi-stereotype, those. a representation that has the status of a national-cultural standard of a certain property in a given language community (bear - clumsiness a fox - tricks), some situation (weave, drag - slow and "sluggish" movement), etc. In such a juxtaposition of not only heterogeneous entities, but also their similarity, which is created due to the properties of a quasi-stereotype, real identity cannot take place. It is for this reason that an evaluative-expressive metaphor, as a rule, is not transformed into a purely evaluative meaning even when the image fades, although such a development is possible (as is the case in the meaning of adjectives like deep content, deep sleep, minor annoyances, major mistakes etc.).
The internal form of the evaluative-expressive metaphor remains functionally loaded: it signals that the subject of speech refers to the designated metaphorical meaning, as if it were something that corresponds to the associations actualized by this quasi-stereotype. Thus, the fictitious mode keeps the figurative-associative complex in the focus of perception (I think, in the subconscious). Wed In this regard, the examples already given above of a possible explication of the modus of fictitiousness, as well as cases of the type He is a donkey= "He is stubborn like a donkey, that is, as if he were a donkey"; She has an iron will = "U her strong, as if iron will, "etc. It must be added that the reference to a quasi-stereotype, which is characteristic of an evaluative-expressive metaphor (and, accordingly, similar meanings), is due to the fact that the latter cannot mislead precisely because of its usual, predictable Therefore, this type of metaphor is so characteristic of everyday speech, where spontaneity of choice prevails when based on stereotypes, speech patterns, etc.
The evaluative-expressive metaphor is used in the field of naming non-objective reality, moreover, with an already given evaluative meaning. And the purpose of such metaphorization is to translate this meaning into an emotively colored, not neutral register. Therefore, an evaluative-expressive metaphor usually receives one or another stylistic status, namely, the ability to carry signals about the belonging of the name to colloquial colloquial, roughly colloquial styles of communication, book speech, etc.
The image in the evaluative-expressive metaphor is not as bright as in the actual figurative one: being stereotyped, it only colors the meaning associatively. In this regard, it is not without interest to recall the "Kuleshov effect" well-known in film art, according to which the combinatorial combination of two frames leads to the fact that one of them begins to be perceived under the impression of the second. So, the face of a person with a neutral expression will seem sad if it is adjacent to the frame on which the coffin is depicted, or cheerful if there is a plate of food in the adjacent frame, etc. Similarly, in the statement Not a man - a snake(Griboyedov) the hero appears to be "poisonous", "stinging with his speeches", etc., since the word snake actualizes here, along with the metaphorical meaning "insidious, dangerous" the above coloration, correlated with the signs of the internal form.
The proposed typology of metaphors and the meanings formed on their basis, and they can be nominatively autonomous (donkey, trudge, avidly), related (slave of passions, firm intention etc.) or idiomatic (grated kalach, sticking out his tongue), shows that metaphor as a model is a productive way to replenish the language inventory. And not only vocabulary, but also grammar. But in the sphere of the latter, such processes take place, where the linguo-creative principle prevails over the cognitive one.
In conclusion, we can cite the words of W. Quine, who wrote that language can be represented as a ship at sea and in need of repair, but which cannot be abandoned and therefore it can be rebuilt only using the available material - board by board. Metaphor is one of the means of updating a continuously operating language at the expense of linguistic material. A metaphor is necessary for a language-ship sailing under the national flag through centuries and social cataclysms with the changing watch of generations. Since each ship strives to make do with its own resources (although borrowings are possible), this renewal inevitably contains elements of the old worldview and language technology, as long as the process of creating a new one relies on them and uses the knowledge associated with them. It is customary to call the results of such a process - quite rightly, in our opinion - a linguistic picture of the world, imprinted in the meanings of the language inventory and grammar. At the same time, we must not forget that speakers communicate thoughts about the world to each other, using the meanings of words and expressions as a means of creating an utterance, so the danger of not seeing behind the linguistic picture of the world what really takes place in it is not so great. This danger exists mainly as a problem of misunderstanding or misunderstanding due to poor command of a foreign language and, to a large extent, its figurative-associative richness, thus, which lies "between semantics and epistemology."
The linguistic picture of the world is a fact of national and cultural heritage. Language is one of the forms of fixing this heritage, including signs, beliefs, etc. So, if in Russian the word goose evokes the idea of importance or swindling, then in English this reality is associated with wealth, stupidity, etc.
It is figurative-associative perception that “draws” processes of a mental nature differently in Russian and English (which, of course, applies to any languages, especially unrelated ones). In Russian, for example, the meaning of "to be completely occupied with some thoughts" is expressed by combinations, where the verb is the product of an indirect nomination and therefore has a related meaning: (completely) immerse yourself in your thoughts; be consumed by your thoughts etc.; in English there are other means and methods for expressing a given meaning. Examples of this kind can be given as many as you like, since the linguistic pictures of the world are unusually diverse. The discrepancies associated with different linguistic pictures of the world are especially well known and described in works on the theory of translation.
So, we believe that the ability to create and solve a metaphor as the most productive means of replenishing the inventory of a language, bringing into it a vision of the world by a given people, mediated by the meanings of words, morphemes, combinations of words and even syntactic constructions already existing in the language, belongs to linguistic competence. Thus, it is connected with the actual human factor.
Recognition of a metaphor is a clue and a semantic interpretation of a text that is meaningless from a logical point of view, but meaningful when replacing its rational display with sometimes even irrational interpretation, nevertheless accessible to human perception of the world thanks to the linguistic competence of native speakers.
<…>Denoting, the metaphor creates a linguistic picture of the signified. This picture is especially picturesque and nationally colorful when phraseologisms-idioms are formed on the basis of metaphor. But it does not lose its originality and brightness in the formation of expressively colored meanings of words. Two tendencies are characteristic of the connected meanings of words that organize the nominative paradigms of phraseological combinations: these meanings create a linguistic picture of the world when the figurative-associative potential does not yet fade in them, but they are neutralized in their metaphorical picturesqueness if the cognitive function dominates in them. And, of course, the most vivid manifestation of the linguistic picture of the world is characteristic of literary texts, where metaphor is a way of creating the world itself, seen through the eyes of masters of the word.
Printed according to Art. Telia VN Metaphorization and its role in creating a linguistic picture of the world // The role of the human factor in language. Language and picture of the world. M, 1988. S.173-203.
G.N. Sklyarevskaya
THE PLACE OF LANGUAGE METAPHOR
The theory of nomination is connected, first of all, with finding out how the conceptual forms of thinking relate to each other, how names are created, fixed and distributed for different fragments of objective reality. The nomination has long been studied at the level of paradigmatic relations. From the point of view of philosophy, the nomination was considered as a variety of relationships between a word, a thing and a concept. The emergence of the theory of nomination is associated with the ideas of the Prague Linguistic Circle. Their contribution is that they defined language as a system of signs that serve a specific purpose. [Telia V.N., 1990: 23]
Despite the high frequency of use of the term "nomination" in modern linguistics, its content is still ambiguous.
So, for example, the same name "nomination" denotes both the process of creating, fixing and distributing the name for different fragments of reality, as well as a significant linguistic unit formed in the process of naming. In addition, different researchers often do not agree on the content of the terms “primary” and “secondary” nomination.
Bulygina T.V., Gak V.G., Ufimtseva A.A. Under the primary nomination is meant linguistic meaning through words and phrases, and under the secondary - linguistic meaning through sentences. The exclusivity of the human language, which consists in the simultaneous implementation of the meaning of both words and statements, gives researchers the opportunity to conclude that there are two different, albeit interconnected, spheres of meaning in the language: 1) the sphere of the primary formation of verbal signs that name repetitive representations of objective reality and subjective experience of speakers language; [Gak V.G., 1967: 21; Bulygina T.V., 1991: 215] 2) the sphere of secondary signification, the creation of statements as “full signs”. [Ufimtseva A.A., 1968: 41]
Nominative signs serve the classification-nominative sphere and, performing a representative function, designate both single objects and facts, and give a name to a class of objects or a series of facts. [Benveniste E., 1974: 113]
To denote the ability of modern languages to replenish their nominative inventory, there is the concept of secondary nomination, which refers to the use of the phonetic appearance of the primitive language unit for a new, designated, that is, the emergence of a new meaning in a given language unit. [Parandovsky Ya., 1982: 78]
At the same time, the results of the secondary nomination are perceived as derivatives in terms of morphological composition and meaning.
The methods of secondary nomination in this sense differ depending on the linguistic means used to create new names, and on the nature of the “name-reality” relationship.
By type of funds distinguish:
1) word formation as a regular way of creating new words and meanings;
2) syntactic transcription, in which morphological means indicate a change in the syntactic function while maintaining the lexical meaning;
3) semantic transcription, which does not change the material appearance of the rethought unit and leads to the formation of polysemantic words, as well as phraseological units of various types. [Aznaurova E.S., 1988: 10]
According to the nature of the name's reference to reality, two types of secondary nomination are distinguished: autonomous and non-autonomous.
Autonomous nomination is the secondary meaning of words that acquire an independent nominative function and name one or another fragment of objective reality, its attribute or action autonomously, on the basis of one name.
With non-autonomous secondary nomination, the formation of a new linguistic unit occurs through such use of the combinatorial technique of the language, in which the linguistic one always correlates with its signified indirectly, through the semantically reference for this combination of names. [Maslova-Lashanskaya S.S., 1973: 49]
Secondary nomination, as we have already said, is the use of nominative means already available in the language in the function of naming, which is new for them. The secondary nomination can be linguistic and speech. In the first case, the results of the secondary nomination appear as the meanings of verbal signs accepted by the language and conventionally fixed, in the second - as their occasional use in a nominative function that is not proper for them. At the same time, there is no significant difference in the secondary nomination processes themselves. However, in the language there are such secondary names that are the most natural for the system of this language naming methods and make up for the missing nominative means in it.
Unlike primitive names, all secondary names are formed on the basis of the meaning of the word whose name is used in the new naming function for it. However, in the field of secondary nomination, there are two fundamentally different ways of reflecting reality and referring the conceptual and linguistic content of names to designated objects.
The first method of secondary nomination is that there is an indirect reflection of an extralinguistic object, mediated by the previous meaning of the word, certain features of which play the role of an internal form, passing into a new semantic content. The meaning formed in this way correlates with the non-linguistic series autonomously. Therefore, the nature of the nominative value of a new lexical meaning depends on the semantic information contained in it, which is expressed in an independent nominative function of this kind of nominative-derived meanings of words.
The second method of secondary nomination is complicated by the connection to the naming process of the combinatorial-synthesizing activity of consciousness and the corresponding language technique. As a result, with regard to naming, one or more other names already existing in the language are involved here. In other words, this method lies in the fact that, along with the indirect nature of the reflection of reality, mediated by the continuity of some elements from the previous meaning of the word, the formation of the meaning of the new name proceeds here under the direct influence of the semantic content of another name, which determines the nature of the reflection of reality in the new naming relation. , setting one or another angle of its consideration, and thereby also mediating this display. Therefore, the formed conceptual and linguistic content of such names correlates with the extralinguistic series, not autonomously, but indirectly. The nature of the nominative values of new lexical meanings, their ability to designate fragments of reality, is closely related to the meaning of the reference name, which is expressed in the non-independent nominative function of such indirectly derived meanings of words and is manifested in the syntagmatic conditionality of their choice and combination in the course of constructing a sentence. [Telia V.N., 1977: 14]
In the process of secondary nomination, the interaction of four components always takes place: reality - the conceptual and linguistic form of its reflection - the rethought meaning of the linguistic form, which mediates the relation of the new meaning to reality, - the linguistic form in the secondary function of naming.
With indirect nomination, the previous meaning of the linguistic form conveys some of the information that is essential for the designated object to the newly emerging conceptual and linguistic content of the name. The orientation of the nominative-derived meanings of words to the extralinguistic series is autonomous in nature and does not need combinatorial support for this meaning in other words.
The qualitative difference between nominative-derived, indirect meanings of words from direct meanings is that they designate objects, processes, qualities, attributing to them some of the features that are not proper for them, therefore such meanings are always more specific in content than the properties of the class of objects to which they applicable. The semantic mediation hidden in the nominative-derived meanings of words is also manifested in the limited range of their compatibility, often narrowed in relation to the properties of the designated objects, and in the presence of such lexical connections that these meanings inherit from the previous ones. So, for example, "unrest" - a mass expression of discontent, a protest against something, also means "a disorderly, chaotic manifestation of discontent", inheriting these signs from the main meaning, therefore combinations of "planned, organized unrest" are impossible. [Ermakova O.P., 2000: 12]
With the secondary use of words in the naming function, which is new for them, the semantic continuity of names naturally arises, which leads to the ambiguity of verbal signs. Nominative production is usually expressed in the motivation of secondary names, in the presence of an internal form that acts as an intermediary between the new meaning and its relation to reality. The rethought meaning of a verbal sign not only adapts to the expression of a new extralinguistic content for it, but also mediates it in the very process of reflection. At the same time, it should be noted that if pragmatic factors predominate in a nominative act, then the motive for choosing a linguistic form can, in accordance with the use of the imagination of the namer, move far from the core of the mediated meaning, which is especially characteristic of the jargon sphere of nomination. [Telia V.N., 1981: 16]
The system of images potentially intended to express predicative features is very diverse and includes names that actualize both external and internal characteristics of the subject of reference. In the system of means of metaphorical transfer, metaphorical nomination is distinguished by the ability to simultaneously express a complex of predicative characteristics associated with the image-symbol, the ability to explication not only external, but also internal characteristics and close interaction between them based on a system of axiological values fixed in the minds of native speakers. Metaphorical nomination makes it possible to express not only qualities or properties that have equivalents in neutral language structures, but also meanings that are not amenable to exact linguistic explication when using neutral vocabulary.
Associative-figurative means of metaphorical nomination also often participate in the formation of a metaphor.
The system of associative-figurative means used in metaphorical nomination may have a different status in a sentence, in particular, act as a predicate. Metaphorical predication takes place if the sentence uses a lexeme as a predicate that is not directly correlated with the subject, but indirectly, through an auxiliary subject that has in the minds of native speakers the value of a typical image - the bearer of this predicative characteristic.
Genitive metaphors, the structure of which necessarily includes the main and auxiliary subjects, are formally close to metaphorical applications and metaphorical predication with nouns in the nominative case in the predicate position, however, from the point of view of semantic meanings, they have significant differences. With the help of metaphorical applications and predicates, the speaker, as a rule, gives a general description of the subject of communication, while in genitive metaphorical constructions it is characterized by one or more of its predicative features: size, shape, temperature, color, structure, in width and so on. Genitive metaphors are focused on the description of objective indicators from the point of view of their subjective perception, therefore, to a lesser extent than other structures, they express the attitude to the described facts from axiological evaluative positions.
Attributive and adverbial-attributive metaphorical constructions constitute the most productive type of metaphorical transfers, due to the fact that their structure is intended to realize the most diverse shades of metaphorical meaning. Among these metaphorical structures, in terms of frequency of use, a group of attributive phrases stands out, the basis of which are adjectives, nouns and adverbs that have a metaphorical meaning: sad blow - an unfortunate blow, golden age - golden years, and so on.
The second group of attributive constructions is formed by participle phrases, gerunds and infinitives that have a metaphorical meaning: servants eating their heads off - servants eating their heads and so on. [Kubryakova E.S., 1988: 87]
§ 1. NOMINATIVE FUNCTION OF METAPHOR (metaphor in titles)
The possibility of developing figurative meanings in a word creates a powerful counterbalance to the formation of an infinite number of new words. “Metaphor rescues word creation: without metaphor, word creation would be doomed to the continuous production of more and more new words and would burden human memory with an incredible burden” (Parandovsky, 1972).
Generous material for studying the metaphorical nomination is provided by the names of plants: God's fur and shepherd's purse, Adam's candle and grandfather's curls. The unique role of metaphor in nomination systems is due to the fact that, thanks to metaphor, a balance is restored between an inexplicable or almost inexplicable, matte name and an explainable, transparent, crystal name. This balance can be observed on the example of the names of the same realities: Marsh calla - a white companion, frog, water lapushka, bear paws, cockerels, breadmaker, violet root, scapular, snake, serpentine, guska, breadbasket.
Metaphorical names enrich life, create a kind of aesthetics of everyday life. So, every day of Shrovetide had its own name: meeting, flirting, gourmet, broad Thursday, mother-in-law evenings, sister-in-law gatherings, forgiveness Sunday.
Knowledge of metaphorical designations sharpens hearing, strengthens attention. So, experts distinguish the following varieties of bird singing: pulkapye, fangs, shot, roll, film.
In its various meanings, the word serves a variety of activities.<...>.
The Institute of Geography analyzed geographic terms and came to the conclusion that many of them are pure metaphor: “guiding boulder”, “penitent sinners”, “ploughing bath”, “gendarmes”, “terraces”, “monks”, “boar’s back” , “steps”, “climatic scenario”.
The nominative function of a metaphor is so natural, so characteristic of the metaphor itself, so in keeping with its nature, that under the conditions of metaphorical nomination, figurativeness is most difficult to preserve. Jean Paul Richter called the language a graveyard of metaphors. Indeed, ordinary words around us are nothing but extinct volcanoes, hushed, curled up, dormant metaphors: window - house eye, snowdrift- what hides, buries under the snow. The metaphorical nomination of an object leads to a rapid fading of the image, this is emphasized by N.D. Arutyunova when she writes about identifying metaphors such as teapot spout, needle eye.
The nominative properties of metaphors shine through not only within a particular language, but also at the interlingual level. An image can arise in the literal translation of a borrowed word and, conversely, in the translation of native language words into other languages.
The author (auctor or augeo - “I increase”) is “one who multiplies any thing, i.e. tells her movement, strength, strength, support and stability ”(from the old Latin dictionary). “Sometimes it is very useful to find out the original meaning of the words denoting now commonly used hackneyed. For example, "cybernetics" literally means "to control a ship"; “religion” - “reconnect, reconnect” (V. Konetsky. Here we will do without a name).
Why do such excursions into the etymology or comparative semantics of languages create the effect of a joyful discovery? Because historical justice is being restored in relation to the word, its image is being restored. The ethical attitude to the word concerns not only the quantitative plan (to know as many words as possible for the most accurate expression of feelings and thoughts), ethics also affects the qualitative side - the ability to treat the word as a priceless treasure, to see the brilliance of the image and the depth of knowledge hidden behind the word.
Speakers are intuitively aware of the visual component of words, and their assessments of the degree of figurativeness of words in most cases coincide, which was demonstrated in an experimental study of the figurativeness of nouns in the Russian language. The author of this experiment, E. M. Bebchuk, asked the subjects to indicate what picture or image a particular stimulus word evokes in them. The results were summarized and processed, as a result, a mini-dictionary of figurativeness of 198 most common nouns was created. For example:
The sun - a bright yellow or golden red fireball high in the sky that emits rays and brings light and warmth to the earth.
Forest - a lot of coniferous or deciduous trees rustling from the wind, a green glade flooded with the sun, a lot of mushrooms, birds singing.
The imagery preserved in the depths of the word for centuries gives the word a second life when this word becomes a metaphor. The nominative function of metaphor is the presumption of figurativeness of any (we emphasize, any!) word.
Children quickly master the nominative function of metaphors, meeting with unfamiliar objects and phenomena. Here is a statement by six-year-old Dasha: Mittens are too small for me in the neck.
In the processes of metaphorical nomination, much depends on national traditions, say, in such an area as the culture of the name. Giving a child a name, in Central Asia they traditionally use metaphors: Aizhan - “merry moon”, Altynai - “golden moon”, Gulbahor - “spring flower”. The name-metaphor is also found in other languages.
§ 2. INFORMATIVE FUNCTION OF METAPHORS
(features of metaphorical information)
<…>The first feature of information transmitted through metaphors is the integrity, panoramic image. Panorama relies on the visual nature of the image<…>, makes you take a fresh look at the Gnostic essence of specific vocabulary, specific words that become the basis, raw material, foundation of any metaphor. In order for a metaphor to take place, to be born, to work, a person must have a generous supply of designation words.<…>.
“For us, only that which has a name exists. The unnamed objects seem to be hiding from our consciousness,” wrote Gennady Gor in the “Chiliry” book. “A name or a word is a pointer to attention and an impetus to the formation of new ideas” (Vygotsky, 1956).
The epistemological connection “the number of words - the quality of thinking” is not in doubt among linguists, psychologists, or writers. The lack of specific impressions turns into inferiority of pre-understanding processes, poverty of “object-hypotheses”<…>.
The second unique property of metaphorical information is the connection of a huge mass of the unconscious to mental reflection. “Unconscious mental processes can have no less rich content and no less significant value than conscious processes” (Dubrovsky, 1978). It is known that at the unconscious level, 10 million times more information is processed per unit of time than at the conscious level, and a sharp expansion of the range of conscious processes at the expense of the unconscious would lead the human body to energy bankruptcy.
The depth of our figurative associations among psychologists - specialists in color theory does not cause doubts. The sky-blue color, obviously, resembles the calmness of a cloudless sky and clear weather, dark red - thunderclouds, black - an impenetrable night full of danger, green - a symbol of warmth, fertility. “Color is only one aspect of the panoramic image that is present in our consciousness and has penetrated into the depths of the unconscious. From the same depths, intuitive ideas, “visions” of plastic eidos - ideas are born. “At each moment of activity, a person is aware of only a small part of the subject content that is presented in the image ... An image that is complete from the point of view of regulating activity is like an iceberg - at each moment only a small part of it is visible on the surface” (Zapalova, Lomov, Ponomarenko, 1986 ).
Finally, the third property of a metaphor, which determines its uniqueness from the standpoint of information systems, is pluralism, a plurality of figurative reading of a situation.
The plurality of figurative reading is clearly visible in the lists of names of the same subject. V.D. Bondaletov, in one of his books, gives 63 names for the Milky Way, most of which are metaphors, like the generally accepted name itself.
Speaking about the features of metaphorical information, we cannot but correlate what has been said with the assessment of the “laziness factor”. Not only in linguistics, but also in other sciences, laziness has long been considered as the cause of ongoing and non-occurring events. Euler and Maupertuis figured out the mathematical essence of the “principle of natural laziness”. Maupertuis wrote: “Nature is a lazy person; it moves bodies in such a way as to perform) at the same time the smallest action. E.D. Polivanov in the article “Where are the reasons for language evolution?” emphasized: “And if we try to give an answer in one word about what is common in all these tendencies of various (and endlessly - in the most diverse languages - repetitive) “typical” processes, then this laconic answer - about the root cause of language changes - will be consist of one, but quite unexpected for us at first glance, word: “laziness” (Polivanov, 1968). Our material refutes the concept of laziness. As already emphasized, both the nominative and informative, and all other functions of the word can be realized, used without metaphors, through direct meanings. But such a saving of effort is not observed, on the contrary, there is a craving for metaphor, for this complex, beautiful phenomenon of language, suggesting a panoramic image, connecting the channels of the unconscious, requiring the birth of other, parallel images, and, as we will see below, in the entire ensemble of functions, the speakers will to give preference to metaphor, no matter how much effort it costs, and besides efforts, there is also the danger of banality, hackneyedness of the image. We can repeat a word in its literal sense from day to day without causing any criticism, but sometimes it is simply impossible to repeat the metaphor-evaluation just said. Metaphor - the fusion of apprenticeship and creativity, duty and gift.
§ 3. MNEMONIC FUNCTION OF METAPHORS (metaphor and memorization)
Metaphor contributes to a better memorization of information. Indeed, it is worth calling mushrooms natural vacuum cleaners, and we will remember for a long time that it is mushrooms that best absorb toxins from the soil. The structure of a geranium flower is easily remembered after the preliminary metaphor:
“Geranium seemed to appreciate its beauty and grace by itself, putting a kind of “five” mark on itself: it has five petals and sepals, a five-celled, five-lobed ovary, with five filiform stigmas” (Young naturalist. 1978. No. 5). The increased memorability of the image is apparently due to its emotional and evaluative nature.<…>in the book of N.V. Tszen and Yu.V. Pakhomov “Psychotraining: games and exercises”, fifty games are given metaphorical names: “Dictation”, “Boiler”, “Gamma”, “Vanka-vstanka”. Such names quickly remind the beginner of the content of a particular game.<…>.
In its pure form, the mnemonic function, as well as others, is rare. It is combined with an explanatory function in popular science literature, with a genre-forming function in folk riddles, proverbs, literary aphorisms, with a heuristic function in philosophical concepts, scientific theories, and hypotheses.<…>.
§ 4. STYLE-FORMING FUNCTION OF METAPHORS
(metaphor in a work of art)
The style-forming function is usually understood as the participation of metaphors in the creation of style, and above all, the style of fiction.
“They already lived in Lena - a hundred centuries of human thought - and looked through his eyes with long eyelashes, and cried out from someone else's pain: “Don't ...”. The temple of the future grew, somehow imperceptibly even for those who built it, by itself: every day of construction is a new miracle. In quiet rooms, that drop of love, which life lacks so much, swelled and someday will completely fall into life, and when it falls, it will become quiet, joyful and warm. “Yedigey’s soul started up, soared and groaned, and at once all the doors of the world opened for him - joys, sorrows, thoughts, vague desires and doubts.”
From small passages, we immediately guess that we have a literary text in front of us, and metaphors help to guess, among other signs. The first passage is taken from the story of S.N. Sergeev-Tsensky "Sky", the second - from the novel by Ch. Aitmatov "Stormy Station".
Although the degree of metaphorical language of a literary text depends on the individual attitudes of the author (there are bright metaphorists, such as A. Marlinsky, and there are writers who are not prone to excessive ornamentation of prose, for example, S.T. Aksakov), although, we repeat, the craving for metaphor is deeply individual, nevertheless, the metaphor remains one of the brightest signs of the style of fiction.
In a literary text, the original figurativeness of the word is reconstructed, which is traditionally considered as an artistic device, evidence of the skill of the poet, writer. More precisely, however, it is not about the technique, but about the result - the birth of the image, to which numerous methods of working with the direct meaning of the word lead, for example, the method of extension, exemia of meaning.
The figurativeness of the direct meaning can be restored by the technique of cross-predication of words like: “It is necessary that the school was also the Home, and the house was also the School” (M. Panich. Way to yourself).
Here, the figurative use of words helps to restore the figurativeness of direct meanings. And vice versa, the figurativeness of some erased figurative meanings can be restored by contextual support of their direct meanings.
“The very first objects that survived in a dilapidated picture of the past, a picture that has faded heavily in other places from the time and flow of the sixties ... - a nurse, a little sister and mother” (S.T. Aksakov).
To restore the figurativeness of a direct meaning, it must be given some properties of a figurative meaning. In order to restore the figurativeness of a figurative meaning (a picture of the past), it needs to return some properties of a direct meaning (a dilapidated, faded picture). In the following example, we highlight the elements of context that focus on the direct meaning of the word “lamp” and restore all the brightness of this metaphor.
“Mother didn’t go out inside me burning down the lamp of life, as soon as he started to fade she nourished him with a magnetic outpouring of her own life, her own breath” (S.T. Aksakov).
Artists of the word have to restore not only the figurativeness of direct meanings, but also the figurativeness of some figurative meanings that have become banal, traditional and, as a result, weakly imaginative.
In general, fiction does not appropriate, does not take away the right to reconstruct the image, but teaches this reconstruction, teaches the restoration of historical justice in relation to the word, teaches for the needs of our everyday speech, which includes both instructive, and sincere, and epistolary, and internal, and etiquette speech and is not at all alien to imagery<…>.
§ 5. TEXT-FORMING FUNCTION OF METAPHORS (metaphor and text)
The text-forming properties of a metaphor are its ability to be motivated, expanded, i.e. explained and extended. How a text is born through a metaphorical beginning can be seen from an example.
“There is such a funny, but very wise saying: “The medicine is a cat that runs after a mouse and breaks everything in its path.” Therefore, with age, one must be very careful with medicines. According to French doctors, people over forty are not recommended to use more than three types of medicines” (Nedelya, 1988, No. 21).
The effect of text formation is a consequence of such features of metaphorical information as the panorama of the image, a large proportion of the unconscious in its structure, and the pluralism of figurative reflections.
The text-generating properties of metaphor are well traced in lyrical poems. So, the famous poem by V.A. Zhukovsky is based on the deployment and explanation of the initial image.
Know the sun is tired
It hides behind the mountains;
Ray after beam
And, scarlet thin cloud,
Pulling back your weary face,
Ready to retire.
It's time for him to rest...
With figurative and very kind words, the poet further explains what work the sun has done, but here is a paradox typical of any highly artistic work: the text not only proves, but refutes the given thought, and the reader is born not pity, not sympathy for the tired worker-sun, but admiration life, reverence for the sunlight, the joy of being, “And give the cherries a ruddy color”, “And warm those on the nest”, “Do not forget the hot snow Scatter on the green garden”, “Crack the grain of the shell And bring the young blade of grass out of the earth into the light” .
Metaphor generates text, but there can be as much creativity in that text as there is in the metaphor itself.
Many metaphors of lyrical poems do not need a train of explanations. Giving the presentation a three-dimensional effect, these metaphors act as signals of another layer, another class of knowledge, i.e. have the properties of not real, but potential heat formation.
There is a genre in which the text-forming function of metaphors is manifested with particular clarity. These are aphoristic miniatures. Here, however, it is appropriate to recall the phenomenon of “genre within a genre”. An aphoristic miniature, in other words, a detailed aphorism, is more often found in the fabric of an artistic text than in an independent performance and environment of its own kind. Moreover, literary works provide perhaps the best examples of detailed aphorisms based on the text-generating properties of metaphors.
“Generations go after generations, and no one realizes that evil is rooted in the most impatient human heart, which is afraid of the brevity of life and wants everything now, now, and does not grow fruit in its own garden, but hurries to pick it in someone else’s” (M. Ancharov. boxwood forest). “Architects cannot create accidents. Intention is always poorer than a happy accident. The city should have intimate corners, pauses where poetry grows. The city needs it more than the countryside” (D. Granin. Picture).
The passages cited contain elements of aphorism, but they rather refute our idea than prove it, since they do not begin, but end, end with metaphors “pick the fruit”, “pauses”. Let us, however, argue deeper. With leisurely reading, it is thanks to the metaphor that the person who perceives the text has a desire to agree with the thought, or refute it, or add his argument. It is easy to verify the validity of what has been said on the example of aphorisms, the nuclear metaphor of which requires a new feeling, a new understanding, the introduction of “textual material” on the part of the addressee of the speech: “Shades are a delicacy of the smart” (F. Iskander). “Your own life is a wonderful textbook. We do not want to read it” (D. Granin).
Metaphorical text formation can be understood both literally, as the generation of the text, and allegorically, as the generation of the subtext layer.
§ 6. GENRE-FORMING FUNCTION OF METAPHORS (metaphor and genre)
Genre-forming can be called such metaphor properties that are involved in the creation of a particular genre.<…>.
The Polish researcher S. Gaida believes that there are direct links between genre and style. Indeed, for riddles and proverbs, odes and madrigals, lyrical poems and aphoristic miniatures, metaphor is almost obligatory. Aristotle called the riddle a well-crafted metaphor. Wed: The fur coat is new, there is a hole in the hem (hole). Near the stake is a golden head (sunflower).
The genre-obligation of metaphor in riddles can also be proved on the material of children's art, riddles invented by children: There are two green banks, and you can’t cross between them (banks of the river). Red animals live underground, they beat the earth with their feet (earthquake).
Equally obligatory is a metaphor in the composition of proverbs.
Genre-forming properties reveal metaphors in folk sign, which is often perceived as a metaphor for a situation. To meet a person with empty buckets - to failure, to an empty road. On the contrary, pour tea to the guest on the very edge of the cup - to a full life. Sit at the corner of the table - you won’t get married for seven years. To break a mirror - to the loss of a loved one.
A metaphor in a proverb, as a rule, plays a secondary role, it creates an element of melody, jokes, but at the same time it is subject to the requirements of rhythm and rhyme and is conditioned by them. The same conclusion can be drawn about lullabies, the obligatory genre component of which is rather personifications than metaphors.<…>.
Finally, there are genres that are alien to metaphor, speaking with emphatic direct meanings. These are children's horror stories, black humor, poems created to frighten the interlocutor. Genre obligatory feature of such verses is the reception of silence, the failure of the text.
The genre-forming function of metaphors also shines through the material of other paragraphs: we observe the ethical function of metaphor in a sermon, the explanatory function in a popular science article, and the autosuggestive function in prayer. These and other functions of metaphors are superimposed on its genre-forming nature.
§ 7. HEURISTIC FUNCTION OF METAPHORS (metaphor in scientific discoveries)
The use of metaphors in scientific texts makes it possible to study the heuristic, or search, function of a metaphor.<…>.
The scientific style of speech is not only not alien to figurative inclusions, but the very search for a hypothesis sometimes begins with an artistic comparison, an image. “In theory,” writes Yu.I. Kulakov, - it is impossible to resort to experience every time. A developed sense of beauty helps to highlight in theory what is rough, what is alien to nature” (Knowledge is power. 1992. No. 1).
The problem of "heuristics of metaphors" can be solved on the basis of specific material of metaphor-terms, as S.S. Gusev, V.V. Nalimov do. Indeed, the birth of the term begins with a metaphor: the mantle of the earth, the tan of the desert, the fluffy multitudes. However, the heuristic nature of metaphor lies in its epistemological nature. Metaphor underlies thinking, and this idea is confirmed by modern philosophical research. Here are some interesting quotes from N. S. Avtonomova’s article “Metaphorics and Understanding”.
“... It is precisely the metaphorical transfer - as a sensually executed hypostasis of analogy - that acts as the main mechanism of understanding at all its levels. It is quite clear that a metaphor in this interpretation is not a purely linguistic phenomenon, and even, first of all, it is not, although, of course, only developed forms of metaphorical transfer as a mechanism of understanding can be fixed in language ... then a process takes place that can be called the process of erasing this of the original component, the weathering of the sensual image and the crystallization of the concept, although the idea-generating and system-generating function of the mind - understanding - has always been and is carried out only in a figurative form. Thus, metaphorical transfer underlies the primary understanding, the initial grasp of integrity, and the basis for building systems of higher levels. ... Thus, philological categories - image, metaphors, etc. - reveal their much greater than previously assumed role in the study of the possibilities and functioning of human consciousness.
In the cited work there are no specific arguments in support of such a radical point of view and ... there are arguments if we analyze the very language of the work. For all the increased theoreticalness of the passages cited (this is a summary, inferential knowledge), even they did not do without metaphors: the mechanism of understanding, the weathering of the image, the erasure of the component, the crystallization of the concept.
An excellent illustration of the heuristic function of metaphors can be found in A.P. Ogurtsov’s article “Hermeneutics and natural sciences”, where the fate of the “book of nature” metaphor and the role of this metaphor in the development of natural sciences are studied. “It is known that Democritus compared the letters of the alphabet with atoms and, in the manner of writing letters, thought of distinguishing atoms by rotation, position and shape. ... Plotinus compared the stars with letters, with which everything is written in the sky and which have movement. He likens the observation of the stars to reading the letters of the alphabet of nature, which reveal order and regularity. ... M. Montaigne, calling bookish wisdom miserable, contrasts it with knowledge of nature... C. Lyell wanted to understand “the symbolic language in which the autobiography of the earth is written” (the unit of measurement of language is the word, and the unit of measurement of flora and fauna is the species ). The metaphor “book of nature” was used by Epicurus and Lucretius, Augustine and Nicholas of Cusa, Galileo and Boyle. Answering the question: why does this metaphor become non-heuristic, A.P. Ogurtsov does not agree with Goethe, who wrote about this, that the book has ceased to be something sacred. According to A.P. Ogurtsov, “an objectification of semantic-semiotic structures has occurred,” however, such an explanation seems to us to be incorrect, since the process of objectification would mean the reduction of all metaphors, and not just old ones. It seems that not a single metaphor can have lifelong heuristic, eternally heuristic properties, and the universality, inclusiveness of a metaphor turns over time into its traditionality, familiarity. Metaphors can serve as excellent methodological supports that allow one to navigate in the dialectic of the known - the unknown. If earlier such a metaphorical support was “a book that we have just begun to read”, now they more often resort to the metaphor “an iceberg, seven-eighths of which is hidden from our eyes” or to the metaphor “black box” (we know the processes at the input and output and do not know the processes inside).
How an ordinary metaphor acquires methodological, super-cognitive properties was interestingly illustrated in the book “Metaphors We Live By” by J. Lakoff and M. Johnson. They gave an example of inducing an extremely successful metaphor based on the English expression solution of the problem - “solving the problem”. Here is what is said about this in the article by A. Baranov and Yu. Karaulov: “... In one of the meanings, the word solution is associated with the meaning of “dissolution”, and a certain Iranian student, who does not speak English very well, perceived this expression as extremely productive a metaphor that evokes the image of a large vessel with a smoking liquid in which problems float in dissolved and undissolved form. In such a metaphorical world, a final solution to a problem is simply not possible: the goal of the decision maker may be only to find such "reagents" that will dissolve the given problem, but will not lead to the "precipitation" of even more complex problems. With this example, researchers illustrate the most important property of a metaphor as a means of speech influence - its ability to influence the decision-making process.
§ 8. EXPLANATORY FUNCTION OF METAPHORS (metaphor and understanding)
In educational and popular science literature, metaphors play a very special role, helping to assimilate complex scientific information and terminology. If we talk about textbooks, then metaphors in their explanatory function were used much more widely in textbooks of the 19th - early 20th centuries than in current textbooks. To illustrate this idea, compare the following texts.
In addition to internal forces, external processes continuously change the surface of the Earth: weathering, the work of flowing waters, glaciers, wind, sea surf. Unlike intraterrestrial processes, external processes are aimed at destroying elevated places and filling with destruction products of depressions on the earth's surface (Gerasimova T.P., Grunberg G. Yu., Ne-klyukova N.P. Geography. Textbook for the 6th grade of high school. M, 1990, p. 62).
Now we know the main sculptors, both day and night, working on the surface of the earth - this is ice, water, wind, and heat and cold. For a huge number of centuries, these sculptors destroyed the once high mountains that were on the site of the present Don ridge, where coal is now mined ... And now only a memory remains of the once young and mighty ridge (Vakhterov V. and E. Mir in stories for children: The fourth book after the primer for class reading in elementary schools, Moscow, 1913, p. 267).
It would seem that the comparison of the wind with the sculptor gives little to the children, since in the textbooks reviewed the text is accompanied by drawings, photographs, diagrams, and yet comparisons and metaphors provide a kind of pre-understanding, that figurative field in which the seeds of pure theory take root more firmly, otherwise we could not to explain such a phenomenon in old textbooks as the predominance, prevalence of metaphor over the concept being explained<…>.
The explanatory possibilities of a metaphor depend not only on the successful choice of a metaphor or comparison, but also on the degree of development of figurative symbolism, so that the explanatory properties of a metaphor are closely related to its text-forming properties.<…>.
The explanatory function of metaphors cannot be interpreted in a simplified way: they resorted to a metaphor - and the incomprehensible became understood, the dark brightened, the foggy cleared up. Consider two examples in which a scientific presentation ends with a culinary metaphor: a pie, a filling.
“Earlier, we imagined a calm layered picture: there is a crust, a lithosphere, a sublithospheric upper mantle, and a lower mantle. They, these layers, are, as it were, homogeneous. In fact, seismic tomography showed that the picture is very complex, that the layers in this cake are not at all the same.” “And one more interesting detail of the functioning of the Earth - two sources of basalts, two ways of delivering the “earth filling” to the outside (Knowledge is power. 1990. No. 7.).
Metaphors “layered cake”, “earth filling” are few<…>are needed as a discharge of a text loaded with terms, as an emotional seasoning for a rather dry presentation, and finally, as a foreign body that makes the perception of the text multichannel, polyvariant. Such purposes are served not only by everyday, mundane words in popular science texts, but also by “foreign” terms, terms drawn from other areas of knowledge. It turns out a curious picture: in order for a popular science presentation to take place, it must, in addition to wrist information, include excursions into everyday life, visits to other sciences, and signs of other cultures.<…>.
The explanatory function of metaphors duplicates the heuristic function, since a discovery in science also begins with an attempt to explain to oneself one or another phenomenon, one or another process. In terms of their semantic content, explanation and heuristics are identical. They differ only in the scope of use and the addressee. The explanatory function of a metaphor involves an explanation to other people in the educational or general cognitive process, while the heuristic function of a metaphor reveals itself in an act of scientific creativity, and the researcher himself becomes the first addressee of the explanation-insight. Of course, there are cases when it is difficult to distinguish between the heuristic and explanatory functions of metaphors. M. M. Bakhtin used the musical term "polyphony" in relation to the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky, initially, apparently in an explanatory sense, but this image turned out to be so deep, interesting and fresh that it began to be used in various scientific texts, revealing its heuristic properties. . Compare: “polyphony of understanding”<…>.
There is another area of application of the explanatory function of metaphors. These are the so-called athematic arts: music, architecture. How to write about a piece of music? How to reveal its highest meaning?
Let us extract from the publications of the Leningrad Philharmonic Society (seasons 1970/71 and 1976/77) an interpretation of major musical forms.
S. Prokofiev. Fifth Symphony. “The second part is written in the form of a Scherzo. The theme underlying this movement sounds calm and clear, revealing a kinship with the circle of images of Prokofiev's “classical symphony”. However, the simplicity and serenity of this theme is deceptive. Gradually, her sinister, menacing character is revealed. A small genre-dance episode intrudes into the development of this image as a striking contrast” (L. Gozenpud).
F. Schubert. Symphony No. 9. “The sonata allegro of the first movement is preceded by a wide-spread slow introduction. Its melodious-narrative character is determined by the theme that sounds on two horns. Developing in variations, it appears in a new guise with each of its appearances. A brief motif of an invocative character, appearing on the horns at the end of the introduction, prepares the rhythmic pulse of the main part and thus imperceptibly leads to the sonata allegro” (S. Mach)<…>.
We are far from the requirement to cross out all known interpretations of musical works and proclaim a new way of figurative understanding of music. One must be able to recognize the theme and distinguish the voices of instruments, and at the same time one must work more on musical hermeneutics, on the word, on metaphor, which gives understanding not only to educational, but also to musical compositions. One successful word-metaphor can affect the fate of a piece of music. It is by no means accidental that the popularity of the first movement of Beethoven's Sonata No. 14, called "Lunar" by some of the composer's friends, is not accidental. The archival "Children's Album" by Tchaikovsky began to be perceived much deeper as soon as the original original titles of the pieces were restored: "Prayer", "In the Church"<…>.
The explanatory function of metaphors gives us language support in the study of physics, music, biology, astronomy, painting, in the study of any (we emphasize, any!) craft.
§ 9. EMOTIONAL AND EVALUATION FUNCTION OF METAPHOR (metaphor and evaluation)
Metaphor is an excellent means of influencing the addressee of speech.<…>.
An image, a new metaphor in the text, in itself, already evoke an emotional-evaluative reaction of the addressee of the speech. In recent years, there have been many works devoted to the study of the pragmatics of the text. The authors emphasize the huge role of imagery as one of the strongest means of influence. “Aesthetic linguistic information has a great potential for suggestibility: it affects human behavior through an appeal to the emotional sphere of the psyche and through it to consciousness” (Kiselyova, 1978). “The aesthetic principle affects, apparently, the same centers of perception as hypnotic suggestion” (Filipiev, 1971). “The development of meanings multiplies the variety of names for the same realities, denotations, concepts, contributes to the deepening of their characteristics, enhances expression, introduces new evaluative points” (Kopylenko, Popova, 1978) .
What caused the emotional evaluation in a metaphorical sense? First of all, the properties of the object itself. Let us give a detailed observation of the classic of Russian literature S.T. Aksakov:
“The love of a dove for a dove and their general tenderness for children are recognized by all the Russian people and are evidenced by their songs and sayings: the authority is convincing and irrefutable. Words of affection and regret, my dear and my dear, are constantly heard in the speeches of the common people.
Do they want to say how well a husband and wife live, how brother and sister agree, how friends and friends are friendly with each other, and they will certainly say: “They live like a dove with a dove, they don’t look enough at each other.”
Wanting to express someone's innocence and kindness, they say: "He has a dove soul."
The very appearance of the dove expresses its qualities: how clean and tidy it is always, how proportionate all parts of its body are! What roundness, softness in the outlines of his figure! In all movements there is nothing impetuous, sharp: everything is so meek, calm, graceful. The people deeply feel the moral qualities of pigeons and have a special love for them”,
Thinking about the figurative meanings of a word, we sometimes learn something new, we notice something unexpected in the subject itself, as, for example, in pigeons, described with such love by S.T. Aksakov<…>.
Pigeons - discussing the origin of emotional evaluation in this metaphor, we, having read Aksakov's lines, discover something new for ourselves in the “objects” themselves. It is no coincidence that some authors, in particular I. Levenberg, believe that the interpretation of a metaphor requires the involvement of extralinguistic knowledge. To interpret metaphors, one needs not only a dictionary, but also an encyclopedia. With two of his observations, S.T. Aksakov anticipated the theory of the famous philosopher and logician M. Black, who was one of the first to draw attention to the similarity of the functioning of literary metaphors and models of science and who emphasized that the metaphor “man-wolf” would provide new information not only about the first subject, i.e. man, but also about the second - the wolf.
Let us dwell on the appraisal of speech metaphors. In their direct meanings, words like wicket, formula, are devoid of evaluation, but when used figuratively, along with the birth of the image, an evaluation of this image is also born.<…>.
In a new, unexpected context, the word not only acquires an emotional value, but sometimes changes its value to the opposite. Thus, when used metaphorically, the word slave can get almost a positive charge: “He knew: everyone who once survived and won, who was able to save someone or saved himself, everyone and everyone were, in essence, happy slaves of experience. Only experience, Zhukov knew, makes a person truly invulnerable” (G. Bocharov).
Of course, when analyzing the emotional-evaluative function of metaphors, we should pay the main attention not to speech metaphors with their sometimes altered emotional assessment, but to typical, linguistic metaphors. The figurative meanings of many nouns in the Russian language contain either a positive or a negative charge. For example: cradle (Motherland), bazaar (about a noisy gathering), vermicelli (confusion, hash).
We took a range of nouns that have figurative meanings, and the ratio of “pluses” and “minuses” of assessing people, phenomena, objects was depressing: 1:8.
There were several explanations for the preponderance of negative characteristics over positive ones, from the most general (a person perceives the good as a norm and more sharply, responds more fully to any violation of this norm) to private ones: the prevalence of a negative assessment in metaphors is compensated by the greater possibilities of suffix formations in conveying a positive attitude.
Diminutive suffixes are not able to compensate for the lack of positive metaphors and, moreover, cannot be regarded as the cause of such a deficit. The reason lies much deeper. For many years - for centuries! - advanced, educated and conscientious people of their time used the word as a subtle and powerful tool for influencing a person. No matter how old a person is, the church took care of his upbringing, the development of his soul. In sermons, teachings, lives, the most ordinary words often turned into metaphors with a strong positive charge.
“When we enter into the Church, we must remember: we are the lamps that shine with the light of Christ. And if they are pure, then this light warms and illuminates those who need it” (Archbishop Cyprian. Sermon// Moscow. 1991. No. 11). “Carry each other's burdens” (from the teachings of St. John Chrysostom//Ibid.). “Likewise, from every virtue for which an opportunity presents itself, one stone should be placed in the building ... either a stone of compassion, then a stone of cutting off one’s will, then a stone of meekness, etc. And with all this, one must take care of patience and courage: for they are the cornerstones, they bind the building and connect the wall to the wall ”(The soulful teachings of Abba Dorotheus / / Moscow. 1991. No. 7.).
As you can see, such texts use not only such metaphors as light, lamp, but also many other words-metaphors, for example "burden", "stone", often changing at the same time “minus” to “plus”, turning into words-stimuli of highly moral behavior.
In the language of the XX century. such an attitude to the word was, if not completely lost, then extremely reduced<…>.
§ 10. ETHICAL FUNCTION OF METAPHORS (metaphor and education)
A mental reflection, an image can perform an educative, ethical function.
The ethical function of metaphors is almost not studied, just as the problem of “language and ethics” has not been studied. For the time being, the matter is limited to stating that with the assimilation of a language, a person acquires ethical assessments, and, consequently, norms. “What is there in the human community that everyone owns and what could be the bearer of common knowledge about good and evil, about truth? This common language. The answer about the origin of conscience in an individual person can be, in my opinion, only this: a person receives a moral law, that is, conscience, with his native language ... After all, all words related to morality are colored in the language with approval or disapproval. I do not think that there is a language in the world in which the words "coward", "traitor", "murderer" sounded approvingly or even neutrally. The language does not say how to treat a mother, but in Russian speech, for example, there are the words “mother”, “mother”, “stepmother”, “mother”, “mother”, “mother”, “mother”, “mom” , “mommy”, “mommy” - this is a whole sermon about the mother. No one uttered and no one listened to, it is in the minds of everyone who speaks Russian” (Soloveichik, 1987).
So, language is the guardian of our conscience.
V. D. Bondaletov emphasized that one of the reasons for the appearance of slang is the too strong ethical impact of such words as thief, murderer etc. on the criminals themselves. “... The main point was that, starting to “play on the hair dryer”, falling into the law, he was freed from the power of morality, overthrew the power of the Native Speech, genetically recorded in cells, interrupting centuries-old reflexes and actions in response to the spoken word. “Murder” is one reflex, “mokruha” is another; “steal” is one reflex, “to block the mold” is another; “girl” - one, “loaf”, “crow” - the other ”(Ganina M. While I live - I’m surging / / October 1986. No. 10).
The condensation of conscience in the word, the moral dictatorship of the word leads to the fact that in the hippie language, for example, the word father disappears. "Word father is not a suitable material for creating hippie “pictures”. And here phaser already contains the shades of meaning necessary for the case ... “For many years I tried to put the right music on the phaser, and he said: this is not music, this is a dog howl. And then I moved in: if he had pinned my music, it would have been terrible” (Mazurova, Radzikhovsky, 1991). Word replacement father in the above statement took place not for the purpose of secrecy of meaning, but for the purpose of getting rid of that highly moral code, which is invisibly concentrated in the word itself.
The considered examples testify to the great importance of the problem of “language and ethics”, which, as a more particular issue, includes “the metaphorical use of words for ethical purposes”. We can say that the ethical function of metaphor follows from its emotional-evaluative function, emotional-evaluative nature. Figurative speech has a strong impact on the addressee, on his behavior, his rating system. Metaphor, connecting the emotional channels of influence, makes such an impact both more subtle and deeper. All this is indisputable, but the essence of the ethical function of metaphors lies not in its derivativeness and dependence on other functions, but in the indirect nature of reflection, which gives a greater educational effect than direct, unimaginative reflection. Let's give two examples.
Costanjoglo advises Chichikov: “Patience! Work for six years in a row; plant, sow, dig the earth without resting even for a minute. Hard. Hard. But then, when you stir the earth well, let it begin to help you by itself, it's not like some million; no, father, in addition to your 70 hands, 700 invisible ones will work. All ten!” (N.V. Gogol. Dead souls).
The father instructs the son-artist: “Save the purity of your soul. Whoever has a talent in himself, he must be purer than all in soul. Much will be forgiven to another, but he will not be forgiven. A man who left the house in bright festive clothes has only to be splashed with one spot of dirt from under the wheel, and all the people have already surrounded him and point their fingers at him and talk about his slovenliness, while the same people do not notice the many spots on others passing by, dressed in everyday clothes. For they don’t notice spots on everyday clothes” (N.V. Gogol. Portrait).
In both passages, the instruction is based on an extended metaphor. The invariance, polyvalence of the metaphor, its applicability to various situations enhances the ethical impact of speech. It may be objected that in a work of art the genre itself and the style itself require metaphorical inclusions, figurative inlays, however, the interpretation of the examples given (700 invisible hands; light, festive clothes) can be different: it is in artistic (highly artistic!) texts that standards are preserved, samples of optimal instructions, which include metaphors as a necessary component<…>.
The ethical function of the figurative means of language was comprehended in ancient times, therefore, it is no coincidence that the abundance of positive metaphors in teachings and hagiographic literature.
The sea of mercy, pasture (about the church), the rod of truth, pirg (fortress) of piety, ocel (steel) of the church - these and other metaphors performed the most important ethical function in those texts in which they were used. Apparently, V.S. Shishkov had in mind the ethics of metaphors when he wrote about the spiritual meanings of the word<…>.
The authors of teachings and sermons empirically found such a property of a metaphor that increased its ethical effect, namely, the deployment, distribution, text generation of metaphors. The metaphor of a sermon is not a sudden, bright and quickly fading metaphor of an ordinary poem, it is a metaphorical field charged with an electric charge of just one, but very valuable metaphor.
Metaphor “small flock”: “But everywhere and everywhere, despite the success of the propaganda of atheism, the small flock of Christ has been preserved, and it is preserved to this day. You, you, all of you listening to me are a small flock. And know and believe that the little flock of Christ is invincible, nothing can be done with it, it is not afraid of anything ... So, if even the gates of hell do not prevail against His Church, His little flock, then why should we be embarrassed, why worry, why grieve?!” (Archbishop Luke. Sermon / / October 0, 1990. No. 4).
Metaphor “temple”: “Keep your heart in a cathedral with icons and relics and do not let strangers into the holy temple day or night. The spirit abides even in an abandoned temple: the gates open, stones rise from the floor - and the service with angels and saints begins ... Enter the temple of the heart, close the doors, kneel, close your eyes and pray ”(O. Stefan. Intercessor / / Homeland. 1990. No. 11).<…>
Metaphor in a sermon is not an element of beauty, although this cannot be completely denied, but above all a catalyst for ethics. The development and repetition of the metaphorical image enhance the educational impact of the church word.
The interpretation of metaphor in religious literature has its roots in the Middle Ages. The core of medieval culture for many years was hermeneutics - the art of interpreting texts (both the sacred text of the Bible and the texts of the Church Fathers). A deep understanding of metaphor in the structure of a religious text opened the way to the realization of the regulatory and ideological function of sermons. The regulatory function made human activity dependent on its socially possible results (understanding as the prediction of social consequences), but at the same time understanding gave rise to beliefs, thereby fulfilling an ideological function. It is no coincidence that it is religious literature that provides us with brilliant examples of the use of metaphor as an ethical means, as a stimulus for a person's highly moral behavior.
Let us now turn to another sphere of existence of native speech - to folklore. It is interesting that the folklore tradition also provides many examples of turning to metaphor as an ethical means. Of all folklore forms, the ethical function of metaphors is most clearly manifested, perhaps, in the proverbs: The beast runs after the catcher. Strike while the iron is hot.
Metaphor as part of proverbs from time immemorial instructed, protected, inspired, consoled and thus educated a person. The ethical potential of the most common proverbs is enormous, but it does not open immediately, but as life experience accumulates. Many writers experienced admiration for proverbs, and this admiration apparently related to the ethical core, the moral core of proverbs,
“They used to say: “The husband is a needle, the wife is a thread.” But behind this, of course, is not blind obedience, they say, where the needle goes, the thread goes there: the thread sews, fastens any gap, a tiny flaw, not allowing it to part, the thread scars, heals ”(V. Lichutin. Marvel-mountain).<…>
Another folklore micro-genre, which reflects the ethical background of metaphors, are folk omens. True, non-linguistic signs are more pronounced in signs (At the sun ears grew up - to frost), but a situational metaphor, a metaphorical reading of the situation (You can’t say hello through the threshold. You can’t sweep after the guest leaves).
The educational function is especially clearly manifested in everyday signs when analyzing foreign ethnic material.<…>.
The metaphorical perception of the situation, aimed at maintaining the high ethics of everyday life, is accompanied by some hyperbolization, exaggeration of predictions. Igor Shklyarevsky wrote about signs: “They cannot be taken literally: for example, if you look at a mushroom, it dries up. This is pure fiction, but its second meaning is the vulnerability of nature, responsiveness to human actions ”(Shklyarevsky I. In the cherished circle / / October 0, 1986. No. 3).<…>
The ethical function of metaphors was realized not only in folklore forms - such as proverbs, omens, elements of a wedding scenario, but also in everyday speech, framing the life and work of a person. Russian religious thinker and philosopher I.A. Ilyin wrote: “It is given to a person to be artistically identified not only with friends and poetic images of his favorite poets, but also with roses in the garden, with a vineyard grown, with a forest planted by his hands, with an eared cornfield and with a factory built by him ... Naming his land “mother” and “nurse”, the plowman really loves her, is proud of her, saves and saves for her, misses her.”<…>
To change the word means to change the attitude. Yu. Nagibin's story “Kvasnik and Buzheninova” is dedicated to the bitter fate of the jester. Mikhail Golitsyn was helped to endure humiliation and ridicule by another word, another name for everything that he experienced. “Call torture of the soul “service”, and you will endure everything.”<…>
§ 11. AUTO-SUGGESTIVE FUNCTION OF METAPHOR (metaphor and self-suggestion)
The high and in many ways unique information content of the metaphor makes it an excellent means of self-hypnosis, self-influence. The function of metaphor as a means of self-influence of the speaker can be called an auto-suggestive function. It is possessed by metaphors in the inner speech of a person, in diaries, letters, metaphors in prayers. All of the listed aspects, areas, “genres” are almost not studied linguistically, meanwhile, the theory of speech influence seems to be fundamentally insufficient without such an aspect as speech self-action, and metaphors in the general arsenal of means of self-action play a far from secondary role.
<…>Vivid figurative representations formed the basis of a drug-free method of treatment developed by G.N. Sytin and called the “SEVUS method” (method of verbal-figurative emotional-volitional control of a person’s state). Here is a small excerpt from the mood, which includes a number of artistic techniques, tropes, in particular metaphors: “A steel fortress flows into the optic nerves, a steel fortress flows into the optic nerves. Rapidly developing newborn life pours into my eyes. Newborn life gives birth to bright-bright, radiant-radiant, newborn-young beautiful eyes. Newborn life gives birth to newborn young, newborn young beautiful eyes. Strong-willed intelligent eyes. Radiant-radiant shiny eyes, radiant-shiny eyes. Newborn life gives birth to strong, strong, tireless strong eyes...”.
A feature of the method of G.N. Sytin is the mandatory presentation of each element of the mood. “And here the doctor does not recognize halftones,” we read in the preface to the book, “only contrasting, bright colors: if health is indestructible, if fire, then inextinguishable, if blood is “flowing through the veins in a wide free stream”, if joy is then “fills a person with everything, through and through.”
Moods form in a person vivid images of health, youth, strength, tirelessness and beauty. And language metaphors, taken in their autosuggestive function, help this: “energy is in full swing”, “this organ washes the blood clean, nourishes it well, brings energy and strength to the organ.” Metaphors and epithets help to get rid of the oppression of old ideas, moreover, this method gives a surprisingly long-term effect.<...>
It is somewhat easier to illustrate the autosuggestive function of metaphor used in diaries, when the writer's emotional state and mood are formed through his own speech, and especially through new metaphors. So, L.N. Tolstoy, encouraging himself to work, created a detailed metaphor of two pantries and a workshop:
“I kept thinking about the same two pantries and a workshop. One room is a pantry where I made materials, another is a workshop where I take from the material pantry and work on it, and a third pantry where I put the finished work. It is expensive not to gain too much, beyond the strength of the material, which deteriorates, gathers dust, fades, but does not work; then it is important to work on what is taken to the workshop ... ”(L.N. Tolstoy. Diaries).
In spontaneous, sometimes "sign" metonymic diary speech, metaphor becomes a means of self-hypnosis, self-influence. Diary style is close to the style of notebooks<…>.
It is somewhat more difficult to detect metaphors-stimuli in the epistolary substyle of speech, since the letter is addressed to another person and does not always fully reveal the inner world of the author himself, the addressee. However, when it comes to assessing, understanding one's own life, metaphors in letters also act as a means of self-hypnosis.<…>. A letter to a friend for a while, for a moment turns into a letter to yourself.
The autosuggestive function of metaphor is observed in prayers<…>.
The autosuggestive function differs from the ethical function of metaphors, firstly, by the direction of speech influence, and secondly, by the psychological coloring of this influence. The process of self-influence is not only self-education, but also self-healing<…>.
The origins of the autosuggestive function of metaphor are found in ancient times. In one of the directions of Indian yoga, the following metaphor was offered for reflection: a man-crew. The physical side of a person, the body is a cart. Emotions are horses. Mind is a coachman. Will - the reins with which the coachman controls the horses. We must take care that the wagon is in order (take care of health), that the horses are trained, not shy, not afraid of new streets. The emotional nature of a person must be educated and at the same time strong. Nothing is accomplished without passion. The mind must be clear and focused. Deployment, explanation of the metaphor “man-crew” gave an auto-suggestive effect, became a means of self-hypnosis<…>.
In order for metaphors to turn into internal stimuli, i.e. gave an auto-suggestive effect, they must meet three requirements: be regularly updated (fresh), hidden and positive. The first two conditions do not require explanation, and the third one needs to be stopped. An impetus for the creation of a metaphor-stimulus, an internal image-landmark can be any object. When M. Shaginyan was presented with a coral, she made an entry in her diary: “Never harden your brain, so that it grows non-stop, but let the experience that remains passed, let it harden into beautiful corals.” It seems that such a negative conception of the subject (“never harden the brain”) prevented it from becoming a good stimulus.
It has long been noticed, but relatively recently introduced into practical life, and even then abroad, that a person adequately perceives only positive, positive programs, “plus information”. Hannes Lindemann (1985) wrote that self-hypnosis formulas should not contain a denial that figuratively colored positive representations affect the autonomic nervous system.
“In general, positive formulas like “You can” are closer to human nature than negative “You will not do anything” ... Here is what a warning sign looks like in the Museum of Sculpture in Washington: “In the museum, you are allowed to look thoughtfully, talk, smoke, walk around touch exhibits, enjoy, litter, relax, take notes ink, pencil (Family and school. 1990. № 8). [The words we have highlighted on the sign have been crossed out. - B. X.] <…>.
In conclusion of the paragraph, let us turn again to the wise antiquity and give several examples of the autosuggestive function of metaphor from the writings of ancient Indian philosophers:
“Go happily. Waking up in the morning, bless your new blossoming day and promise yourself to accept to the end everything that comes to you in it. The creativity of the human heart is in its simple day.”
“Keep your heart wide open. Make sure that none of its petals are closed. Pour silently love and do not despair if a person does not pick up your love...”.
“All life is a series of black and pink pearls. And that person is bad who does not know how to wear his necklace of life in peace, courage and fidelity.
As we can see, the auto-suggestive function of metaphor opens up a whole area of interesting research showing that, in addition to its other properties and advantages, a metaphor also has the properties of ... a psychotherapist.
§ 12. CODING FUNCTION OF METAPHOR (metaphor and code)
Having a high compression of meaning, the metaphor can play the role of a code when designating military operations, exercises, action programs of various authorities and services. For example: “Lessons from Desert Storm” (Krasnaya Zvezda, May 17, 1991). “Good is stronger than evil. Another confirmation of this is Operation Thunder. “Thunder”, which did not strike thanks to the talent and training of security officers, policemen, aviators, all people of good will” (Pravda. 1989. January 3).
From the point of view of linguistic interpretation, the coding function of metaphors turns out to be very complex. Indeed, if we take the encyclopedic aspect of words, it is impossible not to notice that any, not only figurative, word encodes the entire amount of knowledge about the subject. The high information content of the metaphor contributes to good coding and good code preservation, however, the coding function should not be interpreted broadly, putting an equal sign between the coding and cumulative functions, the knowledge accumulation function.
The specificity of the coding function is visible when it is compared with the secret function. In both cases, there is concealment of information, but in slang such concealment should be, in principle, unencrypted, incomprehensible to other people, while in coding the cipher to the metaphor lies, as it were, on the surface. We hide something, we encode, but first of all, for ourselves, we are well aware that the reverse process, decoding, will not cause any special difficulties. Moreover, we make sure that such difficulties do not arise.
The origins of the coding function of metaphors are found in ancient times. “The ancient law of taboo, specific to folk laments, determines the use of many plant names as stable metaphorical substitutions when mentioning the lamented!” (“Klimas, 1989).
Metaphor's rival in its coding function is the 3rd person pronoun is he, which is still used as a universal equivalent of any taboo. In the work of V. Astafiev "Zatesi" the story of a Siberian about the overthrow of the monument is given:
“- One day,” the old Siberian captain said (horse Siberians avoid calling the devil and any evil spirits by their own name - using the word “he” with a secret, soul-warping trepidation), “on a dark autumn night, having built up five tow ropes, they threw a steel noose on“ him”, the working tugboat of the city port, seconded for this work, dropped “him” from the pedestal, dragged him to the middle of the river”.
With a strong and ambiguous evaluative component of the figurative meaning of the word, the pronoun is he turns out to be more advantageous than any metaphor.
The processes of encoding and decoding meaning are also observed in euphemisms. Euphemisms are sometimes interpreted broadly as a trope, consisting in an indirect, covered, polite, softening designation of an object or phenomenon ... He is of advanced age vm. He is old; He does not invent gunpowder vm. He is stupid(Akhmanova, 1969). The opposite concept of “dysphemism” is a trope, which consists in replacing the natural designation of an object in a given context with a more vulgar, familiar or rude one.
If we accept such an interpretation of the terms, then many questions arise: what is considered a natural designation in this context? Are the words and expressions the same? old - at a venerable age, stupid - does not invent gunpowder, to consider replacing the left component with the right one as nothing more than a trope, an artistic device, a euphemism? Further, if we accept such an expansive interpretation of the terms “euphemism” and “dysphemism”, then when analyzing works of art, the question arises: where does one or another trope end and an ordinary text begin? In Gogol's comedy The Government Inspector, all the characters speak in either emphasized euphemisms or dysphemisms.
Khlestakov: How I wish, madam, to be your handkerchief to hug your lily neck.
Marya Antonovna: I don’t understand at all what you are talking about: some kind of handkerchief ... Today, what a strange weather!
Mayor: Well, my dears, how are you? How is your item going? What, samovar, arshinniki, complain? Archipists, protobeasts, swindlers of the sea! Complain? What? They took a lot! So, they think, that’s how they will put him in prison! .. Do you know, seven devils and one witch in your teeth that ...
Finally, if a polite, muted, delicate designation is considered a euphemism, i.e. substitution for less delicate words, then such politeness and delicacy are worthless.
All these considerations aim us at a different interpretation of the term "euphemism". By euphemism we will understand the indirect designation of such objects or phenomena that, for reasons of decency, cannot be called by their direct names. In euphemisms, the coding function of metaphorical expressions is manifested: “night vase”, “combination of household services”, “conveniences”. Metaphors-euphemisms are also found in fiction.
“But from sudden pleasure or something else, the child suddenly behaved badly.
Oh my god! - exclaimed Lenin's wife, - he ruined your whole tailcoat! ...-Can a child spoil anything in this golden time of his age! - he repeated [Chichikov]; but at the same time he thought: “Why, like a beast, the wolves would have eaten him, he had done aptly, the damn canal!” (N.V. Gogol. Dead souls).
The coding function of metaphors is manifested not only in euphemisms. There is a special form in which the coding properties of metaphors are presented most vividly. These are the titles of works of art. “The title of the book, even the story, was found correctly,” writes A.I. Solzhenitsyn, - it is not by chance, it is - a part of the soul and essence, it is akin, and changing the name is already hurting the thing. By the way, the very name of the essays on literary life is a magnificent proverb-metaphor, which encodes the huge and multifaceted content of the essays in the best possible way.<…>
The coding of information in the title is often built according to the formula “metaphor + metonymy”: “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, “Wooden Horses” by F. Abramov, “Lilac” by Y. Nagibin.
<…>In the studies of linguists, it is not by chance that the position of the title, epigraph, beginning and ending is called a strong position in the text, and if metaphors are successfully used in these positions, then these metaphors develop coding properties in themselves.
Summing up all that has been said, let us try to exaggerate, to strengthen the contradiction that is observed in this paragraph between the idea of the coding role of metaphor and its textual argumentation.
In the names of military operations, in the titles of works, instead of a metaphor, we often encounter metonymy of pure water: Operation “Caucasus”, D. Granin's story “The Picture”. In taboo language, the rival of metaphor has long been the pronoun is he. Euphemisms also do not consist of only metaphors. Does this mean the allocation of this function is unreasonable? We believe it does not. Metaphor is not just combined with other ways of heading, tabooing, hiding meaning - it gives a fundamentally different (compared to the same metonymy) scheme for encoding and decoding meaning, which is why it is possible in the same word to combine, combine metaphorical and metonymic codes.
10. One of the essential functions of figuratively used words is the nominative function, otherwise nominative (lat. nominatio - "naming, denomination"). This task is performed by dry metaphors: chanterelles (a type of mushroom), a beard (part of a key), an umbrella (a type of inflorescence), a trunk (part of a tool), a caterpillar (a chain worn on wheels), a zipper (a type of fastener or a type of telegram), a comb ( an outgrowth on the head of birds or a device, tool), front (in the phrase "front side of matter"); Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - "transfer") is the transfer of a name by similarity, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which is based on similarity. A description of the process of detecting similarities between objects and then the appearance of a metaphor due to similarities can be found in various authors. So, in V. Soloukhin's story "Vladimirskie country roads" we read: "And here is also a bell, but very strange. It is completely round and looks more like a ready-made berry. And it also looks like a tiny, porcelain lampshade, but so delicate and fragile, that it is hardly possible to make it with human hands. It will be something to feast on for both children and black grouse. After all, in place of the lampshade, a juicy, black blueberry with a blue coating on the skin will ripen." The writer first pointed out the similarity of a blueberry flower with a lampshade in shape (calling it a bell and specifying that it is completely round; in addition, it has small frequent denticles along the edges, similar to the fringe of a lampshade; this last feature is not named, but the reader assumes it) , and now, after our imagination has been directed along the path desired by the author, an idea of the nature of the similarity has been directly or indirectly given, the writer has already used the metaphor lampshade (in the last phrase of the quoted passage).
The similarity between objects (phenomena), on the basis of which it becomes possible to name another by the "name" of one object, is the most diverse. Objects can be similar a) in shape (how a blueberry flower looks like a lampshade); b) location; c) color; d) size (number, volume, length, etc.); e) degree of density, permeability; f) the degree of mobility, speed of reaction; g) sound; h) degree of value; i) function, role; j) the nature of the impression made on our senses, etc. The following are metaphors that reflect these types of similarities:
a) (forms) a sausage ring, arches of eyebrows, a bird's comb (mountains), a ribbon of a road, onions of churches, a gap funnel, a gun barrel, a head of cheese, a pot-bellied teapot, sharp cheekbones, humpbacked roofs;
b) (locations) the head (tail) of a comet, trains, the sole (crown) of the mountain, the shoulders of the lever, the newspaper basement, the chain of lakes, the wing of the building;
c) (colors) copper hair, coral lips, wheat mustache, chocolate tan, collect chanterelles, bottle (emerald) eyes, sandy shirt, pale sky, golden foliage;
d) (size, quantity) a stream (ocean) of tears, not a drop of talent, a mountain of things, a sea of heads, a cloud of mosquitoes, dwarf trees, a tower (about an excessively tall person), a baby (about a small child);
e) (degrees of density) cast-iron palms, iron muscles, road jelly, rain wall, fog muslin, marshmallows (a kind of candy);
f) (degrees of mobility) a block, a deck (about a clumsy, slow person), a spinning top, a dragonfly (about a moving child, about a fidget), quick mind, clouds run (rush), the train crawls barely;
g) (character of sounding) the rain drums, the screech of a saw, the wind howled, the howl of the wind, cackled (neighed) with pleasure, a creaky voice, the masts groan (sing), the whisper of the leaves;
h) (degrees of value) golden words, the color of society, the salt of conversation, the highlight of the program, the pearl of creations, the pearl of poetry, zero, booger (about an insignificant, insignificant person);
i) (functions) chains of bondage, marriage fetters, web of lies, fetter someone's actions, put a bridle on someone, extinguish a quarrel, a torch of knowledge, an artificial satellite, a key to a problem;
j) (impressions produced by an abstract object or properties of an object, person) an icy gaze, a warm meeting, ardent love, black betrayal, a sour expression, sweet speeches, ice (armor) of indifference, a rat (a contemptuous characterization of a person), to break through a wall of misunderstanding.
Metaphors differ not only in the nature of similarity (as mentioned above), but also in the degree of prevalence and imagery (the latter property, imagery, is closely related to the degree of prevalence and use of the metaphor). From this point of view, the following groups of metaphors can be distinguished:
general language (common) dry;
commonly used figurative;
general poetic figurative;
general newspaper figurative (as a rule);
General language dry metaphors are metaphors-names, the figurativeness of which is not felt at all: "the front side of matter", "the train left (came)," "clock hands", "airplane (mill) wing", "geographical belt", "needle eye" ", "mushroom hat (nail)", "car apron", "fog settles", "tractor caterpillars", "collect chanterelles", "report with lightning", "sew in lightning", "the sun rises (set)", "clean brushed bottles, etc.*
In explanatory dictionaries, these ugly metaphors are listed under the numbers 2, 3, 4, etc. without litter nepen. (figurative), which indicates that these metaphors are not felt as figurative, as pictorial designations.
Common (or general language) figurative metaphors are not direct, but allegorical, pictorial designations of objects, phenomena, signs, actions, these are characteristic words that are widely used in both written and everyday speech. For example, if the direct, generally accepted, "official", so to speak, names of a large number of something are the words "many", "many", then its pictorial, figurative designations are figurative metaphors sea, stream, stream ("sea of fires", " stream, streams of tears"), forest ("forest of hands"), cloud ("cloud of mosquitoes"), mountain ("mountain of things"), ocean ("ocean of sounds"), etc. More examples of commonly used figurative metaphors: velvet ("velvet cheeks"), coo (meaning "tender conversation together"), pearl ("pearl of poetry"), star ("screen stars", "hockey stars"), beast (about cruel person), healthy (“healthy idea”), stone (“stone heart”), digest (“I have not yet digested this book”), saw (meaning “scold”) *, etc.
Such commonly used figurative metaphors are given in explanatory dictionaries under the numbers 2, 3, 4, etc. or with the sign // to some meaning, accompanied by a litter of translations, the presence of which indicates the perceived transference of this meaning, the figurativeness of the metaphor.
General poetic figurative metaphors differ from those just given in that they are more characteristic of artistic speech (poetic and prose). For example: spring (meaning "youth"): "Where, where have you gone, my golden days of spring?" (P.); "And I, like the spring of mankind, born in labor and in battle, sing my fatherland, my republic!" (Lighthouse.); doze off (in the meanings of "to be motionless" or "not to appear, to remain inactive"): "A sensitive reed is dozing" (I.Nik.);
General newspaper metaphors are metaphors that are actively used in the language of the press (as well as in the language of radio and television programs) and, as a rule, are not characteristic of either ordinary everyday speech or the language of fiction. These include:
start, start ("new equipment starts", "at the start of the year"), finish, finish ("finished the song festival", "at the finish of the year"),
Finally, individual metaphors are unusual figurative uses of the words of one or another author (which is why they are also called author's words), which have not become public or general literary (or general newspaper) property.
11. Metonymy. Types of metonymy. The use of metonymy in speech and in the media. Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - "renaming") is the transfer of a name by adjacency, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which arose due to such a transfer. Unlike the transfer of the metaphorical, which necessarily implies the similarity of objects, actions, properties, metonymy is based on the juxtaposition, contiguity of objects, concepts, actions that are not similar to each other. For example, such different "objects" as an industrial enterprise and the workers of this enterprise can be called the same word plant (cf.: "a new plant is being built" and "the plant has fulfilled the plan"); in one word we call the country, the state and the government of the country, the state (cf .: "the people of France" and "France has concluded a treaty"), etc.
Depending on what kind of contiguity objects (concepts), actions are connected with, they distinguish between spatial, temporal and logical metonymy *.
Spatial metonymy is based on the spatial, physical arrangement of objects and phenomena. The most common case of spatial metonymy is the transfer of the name of a room (part of a room), institution, etc. on people living, working, etc. in this room, in this enterprise. Compare, for example, "multi-storey building", "spacious hut", "huge workshop", "cramped editorial office", "student hostel", etc., where the words house, hut, workshop, editorial office, hostel are used in their direct meaning for naming premises, enterprises, and "the whole house went out for a subbotnik", "huts slept", "the workshop joined the competition", "
With temporal metonymy, objects, phenomena are adjacent, "touch" in the time of their existence, "appearance".
Such metonymy is the transfer of the name of the action (expressed by the noun) to the result - to what occurs in the process of action. For example: "publishing a book" (action) - "luxury, gift edition" (result of action); "it was difficult for the artist to depict details" (action) - "images of animals are carved on the rock" (i.e. drawings, which means the result of the action); similar metonymic figurative meanings, which appeared on the basis of temporal adjacency, have the words embroidery ("dress with embroidery"),
Logical metonymy is also very common. Logical metonymy includes:
a) transfer of the name of the vessel, capacity to the volume of what is contained in the vessel, capacity. Wed “break a cup, plate, glass, jug”, “lose a spoon”, “smoke a pot”, “tie a bag”, etc., where the words cup, plate, glass, jug, spoon, pan, bag are used in the direct meaning as the names of the container, and "try a spoonful of jam", b) transferring the name of the substance, material to the product from it: "porcelain exhibition", "won gold, bronze" (i.e. gold, bronze medals), "collect ceramics", "hand over the necessary papers" (i.e. documents), "break glass", "paint watercolors", "Levitan's canvas" ("Surikov's canvas"), "walk in capron, in furs", etc.;
d) transferring the name of the action to the substance (object) or to the people with the help of which this action is carried out. For example: putty, impregnation (a substance used to putty, impregnation of something), suspension, clamp (device for hanging, clamping something), protection,
e) transferring the name of the action to the place where it occurs. For example: entrance, exit, detour, stop, transition, turn, passage, crossing (place of entry, exit, detour, stop, transition, turn, passage, crossing, i.e. the place where these actions are performed);
f) transferring the name of a property, quality to something or what or who discovers that it has this property, quality. Compare: "tactlessness, rudeness of words", "stupidity of a person", "mediocrity of the project", "tactlessness of behavior", "caustic remarks
g) transferring the name of a geographical point, area to what is produced in them, cf. tsinandali, saperavi, havana, gzhel, etc.
The metonymic transfer of the name is also characteristic of verbs. It can be based on the adjacency of items (as in the previous two cases). Compare: "knock out the carpet" (the carpet absorbs the dust, which is knocked out), "pour out the statue" (they pour out the metal from which the statue is made); other examples: "boil laundry", "forge a sword (nails)", "string a necklace" (from beads, shells, etc.), "cover a snowdrift", etc. Metonymic meaning can also arise due to the adjacency of actions. For example: "the store opens (=trade begins) at 8 o'clock" (the opening of the doors serves as a signal for the start of the store).
Like metaphors, metonymies vary in their degree of prevalence and expressiveness. From this point of view, among metonymies, general language inexpressive, general poetic (general literary) expressive, general newspaper expressive (as a rule) and individual (author's) expressive ones can be distinguished.
Common language metonymies are casting, silver, porcelain, crystal (in the meaning of "products"), work (what is done), putty, impregnation (substance), protection, attack, plant, factory, change (when people are called these words), entrance, exit, crossing, crossing, turning, etc. (in the meaning of the place of action), fox, mink, hare, squirrel, etc. (as a feature, products) and much more*. Like general language metaphors, metonyms are in themselves absolutely inexpressive, sometimes they are not perceived as figurative meanings.
Such metonyms are given in explanatory dictionaries under the numbers 2, 3, etc. or are given behind the sign // in some meaning of the word without a tag of translation.
General poetic (general literary) expressive metonymy is azure (about a cloudless blue sky): "The last cloud of a scattered storm! You alone rush through clear azure" (P.);
General newspaper metonyms include such words as white (cf. "white strada", "white Olympics"), fast ("fast track", "fast water", "quick seconds", etc.), green ("green patrol ", "green harvest"), gold (cf. "golden jump", "golden flight", "golden blade", where gold is "one that is rated with a gold medal", or "one with which a gold medal is won" ) etc.
12. Synecdoche. The use of synecdoche in speech and in the media. Synecdoche (Greek synekdoche) is the transfer of the name of a part of an object to the whole object or, conversely, the transfer of the name of the whole to a part of this whole, as well as the meaning itself that arose on the basis of such a transfer. For a long time we have been using such synecdoches as a face, a mouth, a hand, meaning a person (cf. "there are five mouths in the family", "the main character", "he has a hand there" (calling the name of the whole - a person), dining room , front, room, apartment, etc., when we mean by the dining room, front, room, apartment the "floor" (or walls) of the dining room (rooms, apartments), etc., i.e. we denote by the name of the whole its part (cf .: "the dining room is finished with oak panels", "the apartment is covered with wallpaper", "the room is repainted", etc.) More examples of synecdoche of both types: head (about a man of great intelligence): "Brian is the head" ( I. and P.), a penny (in the meaning of "money"): "...behave better so that you are treated, and most of all, take care and save a penny, this thing is most reliable in the world" (Gog.); number ("an object indicated by some number"): "We don't have to go number fourteen!" he says. and, forgetting the degree, I sit talking rushing with the luminary gradually "(Mayak.), etc. *
Uses such as “Love a book”, “Seller and buyer, be mutually polite”, “Tiger belongs to the cat family”, “Revolutionary poster exhibition”, etc. should not be attributed to lexical synecdoche. In lexical synecdoche (say, a mouth in the meaning of "man"), one class of objects ("man") is denoted by the "name" of a completely different class of objects ("mouth"). And the book, seller, buyer, tiger, poster in the examples above are singular forms used in the meaning of plural forms to name the same objects. This, if we use the term "synecdoche", grammatical synecdoche, is a fundamentally different phenomenon in comparison with lexical synecdoche.
Like metaphor and metonymy, synecdoche can be common (dry and expressive) and individual. The words mouth, face, hand, forehead, when they serve to designate a person, are common language, commonly used synecdoches, while forehead and mouth are synecdoches that have retained expressiveness. The synecdoche beard is common (meaning "bearded man"; mainly in circulation). But the mustache is an individual synecdoche. She is found, for example, in the novel by V. Kaverin "Two Captains" (Usami was called in this novel by the students of the geography teacher). Synecdoche is a general poetic sound in the meaning of "word", cf.: "Neither the sound of a Russian, nor a Russian face" (Mushroom); "Moscow... how much in this sound / Merged for the Russian heart!" (P.). A skirt (cf. "run after every skirt") is a common synecdoche. And the names of many other types of clothing used to designate a person (in such clothing) are perceived as individual synecdoches. Wed, for example: "Ah! - the wolf coat spoke reproachfully" (Turg.); "So, so ... - duckweed mutters [from" cassock "], moving his hand over his eyes" (Ch.); "What an important, fatal role the receding straw hat plays in her life" (Ch.); "I'll tell you frankly," Panama answered. "Don't put your finger in Snowden's mouth" (I. and P.); "Suspicious trousers were already far away" (I. and P.). Contextual, non-linguistic uses are many synecdoches that occur in colloquial speech. For example: "Don't you see, I'm talking to a person (i.e. "with the right person")." Such contextual synecdoches, typical of ordinary colloquial speech, are reflected in the literature. For example: "[Klavdia Vasilievna:] Meet me, Oleg. [Oleg:] With a scythe - Vera, with eyes - Fira" (Roz.). (In the play Rozova Vera is a girl with a thick braid, Fira is with big beautiful eyes).
Metaphor. Metonymy. Synecdoche
Metaphor- this is the transfer of a name from one object to another on the basis of similarity.
The similarity can be external and internal.
Type of metaphor:
Similarity of shape (draw a circle - a lifebuoy);
Similarity of appearance (black horse - gymnastic horse);
The similarity of the impression made (sweet grapes - sweet dream);
The similarity of the location (leather sole - the sole of the mountain, whitewash the ceiling - three in Russian - its ceiling);
Similarity in the structure of assessments (light portfolio - light text, the son outgrew his father, became very high - outgrow your mentor);
Similarity in the way of presenting actions (covering a tree trunk with your hands - she was overcome with joy, piles support the bridge - support Ivanov's candidacy);
Similarity of functions (mercury barometer - barometer of public opinion).
I. According to the peculiarities of use, functions.
1. nominative
This metaphor is dry, has lost imagery. Dictionaries, as a rule, do not mark this meaning as figurative, metaphorical.
For example, a door handle, a teapot spout, the white of an eye, a peephole
There is imagery in the word, it lies in the very fact of transferring the name from one subject to another.
2. figurative metaphor
Contains a hidden comparison, has a characterizing property.
For example, a star (celebrity), a sharp mind.
A figurative metaphor arises as a result of a person's understanding of the objects of the real world.
3. cognitive metaphor
A mental reflection of the real or attributed commonality of properties between compared concepts.
Forms the abstract meaning of the word.
For example, a handful of people (a small number), spin around (always be in your thoughts).
II. By role in language and speech.
1. General language (usual).
It reflects the social image, has a systemic character in use. It is reproducible and anonymous, fixed in dictionaries.
2. Individual (artistic).
For example:
In the midst of midday languor
Turquoise covered with cotton wool.
Giving birth to the sun, the lake languished.
The main features of metaphors:
1. It is a concise comparison.
2. It has a dual semantic nature
3. Metaphor is a riddle that needs to be solved.
4. Metaphor is a leap from the sphere of language into the sphere of knowledge about extralinguistic reality
5. Constant and essential characteristics of phenomena are significant in metaphor
6. Metaphor is fed by everyday knowledge
Conditions for metaphoric transfers:
1. Physical signs of objects are transferred to a person and characterize his mental properties
2. Characteristics of objects are characteristics of abstract concepts
3. Signs or actions of a person are transferred to objects, natural phenomena or abstract concepts
4. Signs of nature, natural phenomena are transferred to a person
Language metonymy– transfer of a name from one representation to another based on their adjacency. (eat raspberries - berries - the unity of the plant and its fruits)
Metonymic models are a stable content scheme within which a number of specific metonymic shifts are made.
In the most general form, the content of metonymic models is formulated as follows: the name A is transferred to the adjacent B.