LIFSHITS Vladimir Alexandrovich (1913-1978); KHAZIN Alexander Abramovich (1912-1976), pop playwrights 274 In principle. “Questionnaire”, scene from the play. Leningr. t-miniatures “White Nights” (1957) “I’m not a fool, no, in principle. I was thinking, I realized something,

YEARS OF BIRTH 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996 YOU WERE BORN in 1756 in Italy, in the family of a poor artisan. You were the seventh and very last child in the family; your mother died during childbirth. From early childhood you learned what hunger, cold and need are. To earn a living,

YEARS OF BIRTH 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996 YOU WERE BORN in 1702 in Siberia, your family was very poor, and from early childhood you had to work a lot, help your parents support your younger brothers and sisters. However, work was a joy for you, you always loved and knew how to

YEARS OF BIRTH 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996 YOU WERE BORN in 407 in England, your parents were rich enough to provide you with a good life, give you a good education for those times, bring you into society . However, everything changed overnight: your parents

YEARS OF BIRTH 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996 YOU WERE BORN in 1259 in Austria, your parents died when you were two years old, your neighbor took you in to raise you. He didn't have any children of his own, so he treated you like his own child, when you grew up, he taught you your

BIRTH YEARS 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996 YOU WERE BORN in 1469 in Indonesia, your mother died giving birth to you, you were the seventh child in the family. Your father treated you coldly, but your older brothers and sisters loved and spoiled you, and you maintained a warm relationship with your partner throughout your life.

YEARS OF BIRTH 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996 YOU WAS BORN in 1804 in the Philippines, as a child you were sick a lot, and therefore your parents overprotected you and spoiled you. But you were not a capricious child and you did not grow up to be selfish. You will forever preserve the memory of a carefree and happy

YEARS OF BIRTH 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996 YOU WAS BORN in 1804 in Vietnam, seven more children were born after you, you were the eldest child in the family, you had to help your mother care for the babies. When you were fifteen, your father had an accident.

YEARS OF BIRTH 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996 YOU WAS BORN in 1691 in Syria, your mother was a sickly woman, so your upbringing was mainly done by your father. You were a strong, strong and resilient child, you never cried and were not afraid of anything. You have become brave, no

During the war years, peaceful life in Grazhdanka was interrupted by the Great Patriotic War. “All day long, since June 1941, troops with equipment went to war through Grazhdanka: probably from the northern regions - Toksovo and Medvezhiy Stan,” recalls Galina Vladimirovna Mikhailovskaya. The second

LIFSHITS, Vladimir Alexandrovich (1913–1978); KHAZIN, Alexander Abramovich (1912–1976), pop playwrights 539 In principle. “Questionnaire”, a scene from the play. Leningr. tra miniatures “White Nights” (1957) “I’m not a fool, no, in principle. I was thinking, I understood something, basically.” 540 Murlin Murlo. "At the windows of the house"

A new aggravation of the military-political situation occurred in 1912-1913. With the direct participation of Russia, on February 29, 1912, a military alliance was concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria directed against Turkey. According to the treaty, military operations

could only be opened with the consent of Russia. In the event of Turkey's defeat, Macedonia, which separated from Turkey, was divided into three parts: the larger one was given to Bulgaria, the smaller one to Serbia, the rest, disputed, was transferred to Russian arbitration. Two months later, a military convention was concluded between these countries, which stipulated the number of troops that Serbia and Bulgaria were supposed to field against Turkey, as well as against

Austria-Hungary, if it gets involved in a military conflict. Greece soon joined this agreement. This is how the Balkan Union (or “Balkan Entente”) was created. Montenegro, although formally not part of this union, was under the same subjugation with Serbia. Russia sought to use this bloc against Germany and Austria-Hungary, as well as Turkey. England and France also supported this bloc, viewing it as a new ally against Germany. But in St. Petersburg they tried to prevent a premature action by the “Balkan Entente” against Turkey.

The failures of the Turkish army in the war with Italy caused a new political crisis in Turkey. The Young Turk government was overthrown. This sparked a series of speeches. on the part of the oppressed population of national regions. The most significant were the uprisings that broke out in the summer of 1912 in Albania and Macedonia. The Turkish authorities responded with a terrible massacre of civilians, in which more than 50 thousand people died. The massacre caused an explosion of indignation in Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro. Attempts by Russian diplomacy to prevent war were unsuccessful. First, on September 25 (October 7), “Montenegro began military operations in 1912. On October 5 (18), Bulgaria and Serbia declared war on Turkey, and the next day Greece joined them.” The allied forces quickly defeated the Turkish army. Serbian troops reached the Adriatic Sea, and Bulgarian troops reached the Chataljinsky heights, located 45 km from Constantinople. The capture of Constantinople by the Bulgarians seemed inevitable.

On October 21 (November 3), Türkiye turned to the great powers with a request for peaceful mediation. The Russian government decided to contain the allies. It threatened Serbia and Montenegro with financial sanctions, demanding an end to hostilities. Particular pressure was placed on Bulgaria, because the breakthrough of the Chataldzhin Heights by Bulgarian troops and their capture of Constantinople would inevitably lead to the appearance of English and German warships near the Black Sea straits. The Russian Black Sea Fleet was put on full combat readiness. But soon the Bulgarian attacks at the Chataldzhin Heights were repulsed by Turkish troops, and the fears of Russian diplomacy were removed.

At this time, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia to clear the coast of the Adriatic Sea that it had captured. Along with this, it mobilized its army, part of which it concentrated on the Serbian border, and the other brought closer to the Russian border.

Wilhelm "incited Austria-Hungary to unleash military action against Serbia, promising support. On the advice of Russia, Serbia withdrew its troops from the Adriatic coast.

For a short time hostilities ceased, but in January 1913 the Young Turks again came to power in Turkey. they resumed military operations against the Balkan troops

alliance, but the Turkish army again suffered a crushing defeat; However, pressure from Russia, which England also joined, on the countries of the Balkan bloc forced him to begin peace negotiations with Turkey. In May 19132. A peace conference was convened in London. On May 17 (30) a treaty was signed, according to which almost the entire European territory of Turkey, with the exception of Constantinople and the adjacent territory, as well as about. Crete and the Aegean Islands were handed over to the victorious countries. Under the terms of the London Peace Treaty, Turkey recognized the independence of Albania (declared by it in 1912 as a result of the national liberation uprising).

Austro-German Diplomacy soon managed to split the Balkan Union over disputed territorial issues, which led to the Second Balkan War, now between the victorious countries - former allies. A dispute arose between Greece and Bulgaria over Macedonia, whose territory was not demarcated when distributed between these countries. On June 17 (30), 1913, Bulgaria, incited by Austria-Hungary and Germany, who promised it help, suddenly launched an assault on the Serbian and Greek forces. But the Greek and Serbian troops prepared in advance for this assault and pushed the Bulgarians back to their original lines. On June 27 (July 10), Romania came out against Bulgaria, whose troops occupied Dobruja and moved towards the Bulgarian capital Sofia. At the same time, Türkiye attacked Bulgaria. On July 9 (22), 1913, the Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand turned to Russia with a request for mediation. Russian diplomacy demanded a truce and then peace. On August 17 (30) a peace conference opened in Bucharest, which was attended by representatives not only of the warring parties, but also of the great European powers. 16(29) September 1913 peace was concluded, according to which Bulgaria was forced to cede not only the conquered, but also its ancestral territories: to Serbia and Greece - almost all of Macedonia, Romania - Southern Dobruja, Greece - Thessaloniki with the adjacent region, and Turkey - the Adrianople region.

The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 completed the process of liberation of the Slavs and the Balkan Peninsula from the centuries-old Ottoman yoke, but at the same time they were also the prologue to the First World War. Between two opposing military-political blocs - the Triple Alliance and the Entente - a struggle broke out for allies on the Balkan Peninsula. The Entente supported Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Romania, the Austro-German bloc supported Turkey and Bulgaria. Relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary became especially strained. The first was supported by Russia, the second by Germany.

ON THE PATH TO WORLD WAR

The last pre-war years were marked by an unprecedented arms race. Military appropriations increased sharply, the size of the army expanded and the length of military service increased.

In 1912-1913 Russia adopted programs to strengthen its naval and land weapons. The Great Program to Strengthen the Army" provided for an increase in its strength by 39% (by 480 thousand soldiers) and a significant increase in field artillery, restoration and expansion of the fleet, which suffered significant losses in the Russo-Japanese War. The program was designed for 3-4 years. However, Germany managed to complete its

military program. Already by 1914, there were open calls in the German press for an immediate war with Russia; until she completed the reorganization of her military and naval forces. In 1913, the Reichstag passed a law to significantly increase the size of the German army. In response, France increased the length of military service from two to three years.

In January 1913, as a result of a coup d'etat in Turkey, groups oriented toward Germany came to power. By agreement with them, in November 1913, Germany sent a military mission of 42 officers to Turkey, led by General Liman von Sanders, to reorganize the Turkish army and strengthen the Black Sea straits. Liman von Sanders was appointed commander of the corps in Constantinople, which made Germany the master of the Black Sea straits. After negotiations with Russia, Germany made a minor concession; Liman von Sanders was appointed inspector of the Turkish army.

Soon, 70 German officers and generals commanded Turkish divisions and regiments and occupied key positions in the Turkish War Ministry and General Staff. Germany, in the person of Turkey, was thoroughly preparing an ally against Russia. This greatly alarmed the Russian government, because a military threat was created to the south of Russia.

Austria-Hungary was also completing its military program. In the spring of 1914, she completed the development of a strategic plan for an attack on Serbia in order to prevent the ongoing process of reunification of the latter with Montenegro. Germany approved this plan, promising its support. In mid-June 1914, at a secret meeting between Wilhelm 11 and Franz Joseph in Bohemia, the Kaiser advised taking advantage of any “opportune moment for a strong blow” against Serbia and assured the Austrian emperor that he would support him if Russia came to the defense of Serbia. “If we don’t act now,” the Kaiser said, “the situation will get worse.”

The Austro-German bloc counted on Russia's unpreparedness for war, as well as on England's neutrality. At the beginning of 1914, Sazonov demanded that the British cabinet conclude an open defensive alliance with Russia in order to thwart any German hope for England’s neutrality in the event of a European war, and not to provoke an attack on Russia and France. England avoided this. Only in the critical days of July 1914 did England declare its readiness to act together with Russia in the war against the countries of the Triple Alliance.

Stolypin’s course of avoiding war at any cost was continued after his death by V.N. Kokovtsov, who was appointed to the post of Prime Minister. But he In January 1914 was dismissed. Kokovtsov was considered the “head of the peaceful party.” In France, Poincaré was elected president in 1914, known as the “Poincaré War.”

The most far-sighted politicians saw the war as a danger for Russia, because “a declaration of war could be the beginning of unrest... In February 1914, the leader of the right in the State Council, P. N. Durnovo, submitted a note to the emperor, in which he advocated preserving peace no matter what became against the expansion of Russian territory, because this strengthens the centrifugal forces in it. As for changing the regime of the Straits, then, as Durnovo argued, “the Germans, more easily than the British, would agree to provide us with the Straits, in the fate of which they have little interest and at the price of which they would willingly buy our union.. But most importantly, Durnovo argued, a war between Russia and Germany will inevitably cause a European revolution, and “it represents especially fertile ground for social upheaval; of course, Russia.” He emphasized the particular harmfulness of the military conflict with Germany as the representative of “the conservative principle in the civilized world.” He argued that regardless of the outcome of the war between Russia and Germany, “a sharp weakening of the conservative principle in Europe will inevitably occur.” In a defeated country (be it Russia or Germany), a revolution will inevitably break out, which will spread to the victorious country. Representatives of the liberal orientation also foresaw the danger of social upheaval if Russia was drawn into the war. On June 10, 1914, cadet A.I. Shingarev warned that the war would be “the reason for a new serious internal conflict.” On the same day, the Cadets, together with the left factions, voted against the bill appropriating 433 million rubles. for military needs.

CHAPTER XIV. RUSSIA IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR

STRATEGIC PLANS AND MILITARY POTENTIAL OF RUSSIA AND THE AUSTPO-GERMAN BLOC ON THE EVE OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

In Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary were considered the main opponents in the upcoming war. Romania and Turkey, even Sweden, could not be ruled out on their side. In this regard, the Russian General Staff developed two versions of the offensive plan. According to the first option, it was supposed to launch an offensive against Austria-Hungary, since it was known that its main forces were.

The position of France turned out to be critical. The German armies were already 120 km from Paris. The French government hastily evacuated to Bordeaux. The British army was preparing to evacuate from the continent. The French ambassador Maurice Paleolog conveyed to Nicholas 11 the demand of his government for the speedy offensive of Russian troops on Berlin. In order to save France from defeat and exit the war, Russia was forced to begin military operations on the German front without completing the deployment of its armies.

From the very beginning of the war, the Russian General Staff formed two fronts on the western Border: North-Western (commanded by General Ya. G. Zhilinsky) and South-Western (commanded by General N. I. Ivanov). Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich - “the younger” (Uncle Nicholas 11) was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the entire active Russian army.

On August 2 (15), the order was given to the 1st (Neman) Army of General P. K. Rennenkampf, which was part of the Northwestern Front, to begin an offensive bypassing the Masurian Lakes from the north, and the 2nd (Narev) Army of General A. V. Samsonov to bypass them from the south. They were tasked with enveloping the 8th German Army of Colonel General M. Prittwitz stationed in East Prussia from the flanks and preventing its retreat to the Vistula. Prittwitz had four infantry corps and 89 cavalry squadrons with a total number of 200 thousand people and 1044 guns. Rennenkampf's army numbered 110 thousand people and 492 guns, while Samsonov had about 150 thousand people and 720 guns.

First August 4(17) from r. The Neman army entered East Prussia, and three days later Samsonov’s army launched an offensive from the south. At first, the offensive of the Russian armies was successful. 6-7 (19-20) August On the Gumbinnen Goldap front, a counter battle took place between the main forces of the armies of Rennenkampf and Prittwitz, as a result of which the German corps of General A Mackensen was defeated, and he began to retreat to the west. Rennenkampf was given the task of pursuing units of the retreating enemy and blocking them at Konigsberg. However, Rennenkampf, citing the fatigue of his troops, advanced slowly and was virtually inactive.

Prittwitz, having left a barrier of two foot divisions against Rennenkampf's army, threw the bulk of his forces against Samsonov's army. Samsonov's army was stretched along the front for 210 km and was 95 km away from Rennenkampf's army.

Radio communications between the army commanders were not encrypted, and the enemy was well aware of the movements of Russian units. On the Russian side, virtually no reconnaissance of the area of ​​military operations was carried out. In addition, with poor communication, both armies acted uncoordinated, which allowed the German command to defeat them one by one.

On August 8 (21), Prittwitz was replaced by Colonel General P. Ginderburg (later Supreme Commander-in-Chief of all German forces). He concentrated his main forces on the flanks of Samsonov's army. The subsequent attacks on the flanks and then to the rear of the 2nd Russian Army inflicted enormous damage on it and caused disorganization. A hasty retreat began. The main forces of the 2nd Army were surrounded, including commander Samsonov himself along with his headquarters. Having lost contact with the front headquarters and with his corps and seeing the inevitability of captivity, Samsonov shot himself. Taking command of the 2nd Army, General N..N. Klyuev gave the order to the surrounded units to surrender. However, some commanders disobeyed the order and managed to remove up to 10 thousand soldiers from the encirclement. .

After the defeat of the 2nd Russian Army, Hindenburg, having collected all his available forces, threw them against Rennenkampf’s army on August 24 (September 6). During the battles of August 27 (September 9) - September 2 (15), Rennenkampf's army was driven back beyond the Neman with heavy losses.

During an unsuccessful East Prussian operation Russian troops lost 170 thousand people (including -135 thousand prisoners), German troops, according to their command, - 37 thousand people.

However, the offensive of two “Russian armies in East Prussia forced the German command on August 13 (26) to withdraw two corps and one cavalry division from the Western Front and send them to East Prussia, stopping the movement towards Paris. Thus, at the cost of the death of two Russian armies, Paris was saved .

August 5(18), simultaneously with the fighting in East Prussia, began Galician operation Southwestern Front against Austro-Hungarian troops. The operation lasted 33 days, until September 8 (21). On the 400-kilometer front between the Dniester and the Vistula, about 2 million people with 5 thousand guns acted on both sides. .

The offensive of the Russian troops began on their left flank by the forces of the 8th Army of General A A Brusilov, and on August 10 (23) all the armies of the Southwestern Front went on the offensive. An attempt by the Austro-Hungarian armies to launch a counter-offensive was thwarted. During bloody battles 16-18 (29-31) August on the river Rotten Lipa, the Austro-Hungarian front was broken through. Russian troops occupied Galich and Lvov. During the subsequent offensive of the Russian armies, three Austro-Hungarian armies were in danger of being outflanked and encircled. On August 30 (September 12) the general retreat of the Austro-Hungarian troops began. The advancing Russian corps attacked the large Galician fortress of Przemysl with a 130,000-strong garrison. Only the lack of siege artillery prevented the fortress from being taken on the move (it capitulated in early March 1915). 31 August (September 13) Russian armies reached the river line. Vistula and were located 80 km from Krakow. However, the exhaustion of troops and the breakdown of the rear forced the Russian command to stop further offensive.

During the Galician operation, Russian troops advanced up to 300 km and occupied a significant part of Galicia. Austro-Hungarian troops lost up to 400 thousand people (of which over 100 thousand were prisoners), Russian losses amounted to 230 thousand people (of which 40 thousand were prisoners). The Galician operation seriously undermined the combat effectiveness of Austria-Hungary, Germany's main ally, and diverted its forces from Serbia.

The defeat of the Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia nullified the German command's hopes for a quick victory. The plan of the German command, which relied on the defense of the Eastern Front at the first stage of the war by the forces of Austro-Hungarian troops, was thwarted. The success of the Russian troops in Galicia put an end to the hesitation of Italy, which withdrew from the Triple Alliance and joined the Entente, and also delayed the preservation of neutrality by Bulgaria for a year, which helped the Serbs to hold back the onslaught of Austrian troops for the time being.

As a result, the Galician operation created the threat of an invasion of Russian troops into Hungary and Silesia. In this regard, the German command transferred large formations to the Galicia region from its Western Front.

In October-November Two major operations were carried out on Polish territory - Warsaw-Ivangorodskaya, in which over 900 people participated on both sides, and it lasted throughout October, and Lodz, in which over 600 thousand people acted on both sides during the end of October-November 1914.

In September 1914, an army under the command of Hindenburg was deployed in the Silesian region. The Austrian army joined it. Together, from the regions of Krakow and Częstochowa in the direction of Ivangorod and Warsaw, they struck at the 20-kilometer junction between the North-Western and South-Western fronts, setting the task of going to the rear of the troops of the North-Western Front." The Russian command figured out this plan and suspended its offensive on the Vistula, where a group of Russian troops had previously been concentrated for the invasion of Germany. In addition, three armies and two corps were transferred from Galicia to the Warsaw-Ivangorod region, and two armies were left for defensive actions in Galicia in the area of ​​the Ivangorod fortress. , north-west of Warsaw, heavy fighting broke out. The Ivangorod fortress offered stubborn resistance to the advancing German troops. On September 30 (October 13), German troops approached Warsaw and were able to occupy some of its advanced forts. During this operation, battles spread over 300 km along the front. 140 km deep.

October 1(14) Russian troops numbering 520 thousand people stopped the advance of the Austro-German troops, and after 5 days launched a counter-offensive and threw the enemy back to their original positions. Due to lagging behind in the rear, Russian troops suspended the offensive on October 26 (November 8). During the operation, the Austro-German troops lost 100 thousand people, the Russians - 50 thousand.

Warsaw-Ivangorod operation provided significant assistance to the Allies on the Western Front in Flanders, where on November 15 the German offensive was suspended, as the German command withdrew some of its troops from this area and transferred them to the Eastern Front.

29th of October(11 November) The offensive of German troops began in the Lodz area. The German command set the task of encircling and defeating the 2nd and 5th armies of the Northwestern Front stationed here. The German command transferred 9 divisions from the Western Front to reinforce the advancing corps. The Lodz operation began. Stubborn fighting continued until November 11 (24), but the task set by the German command was not completed.

On November 30, at a meeting at Headquarters, it was decided: due to the losses suffered and the acute shortage of weapons and ammunition, to suspend the offensive, and to withdraw troops in some sectors of the front.

During the bloody battles, the German command managed to remove the threat of an invasion of Russian troops into Germany, even moving the front line somewhat deeper into Polish territory, but it was not possible to defeat the Russian armies as planned. Russian and Austro-German forces were drained of blood. Russian losses exceeded 2 million people, Austro-German losses, according to the German General Staff, amounted to 950 thousand killed, wounded and prisoners (including over 700 thousand Austrians). Both sides switched to a defensive, positional war that lasted about three months.

Fighting on the Eastern Front in 1914 provided great support to Russia's allies on the Western Front, where German losses amounted to over 750 thousand people. And here the German army went on the defensive. Based on the results of the 1914 campaign, the German command decides to concentrate its main efforts in the near future on the Eastern Front to defeat the Russian army in order to subsequently deliver a decisive blow to the Anglo-French army on the Western Front. The active actions of the Russian armies during the 1914 campaign thwarted the German plan for a lightning war and the defeat of opponents one by one. Germany was faced with the need to wage a protracted war on two fronts, which ultimately created the strategic preconditions for the victory of the Entente countries.

First Balkan War(October 9, 1912 - May 30, 1913) was fought by the countries of the Balkan Union of 1912 (Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro) against the Ottoman Empire for the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Turkish yoke. In Aug. 1912 An anti-Turkish uprising broke out in Albania and Macedonia. Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece demanded that Turkey grant autonomy to Macedonia and Thrace. Tour. The government rejected these demands and began mobilizing the army. This served directly. the reason for declaring war on Turkey by the states of the Balkan Union. Oct 9 1912 war. actions against the tour. armies began Montenegro, Oct. 18 - Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece. The Allies mobilized 950 thousand people. and deployed armies, which numbered 603 (according to other sources up to 725) thousand people. and 1511 op. Grech, the fleet had 4 battleships, 3 cruisers, 8 destroyers, 11 gunboats. boats.
Türkiye, having mobilized 850 thousand people, sent to Europe at the beginning of the war. theater approx. 412 (according to other sources about 300) thousand people. and 1126 op. Grouping tour. troops could be strengthened by the transfer of formations from Asia (up to 5 corps). The Turkish Navy was weaker than the Greek. and included 3 battleships, 2 cruisers, 8 destroyers and 4 gunships. boats. The countries of the Balkan Union were superior both in numbers and in the quality of weapons, especially artillery, and in the level of combat training of troops. Their armies, inspired by the goals of the national liberation struggle, had a higher morale. Bolg. the army created ch. a grouping of three armies in the Istanbul direction. Ch. Serbian forces (3 armies) were aimed against the tour. groups in Macedonia, Greek. The Thessalian and Epirus armies attacked Thessaloniki and Ioannina, respectively. The Greek fleet was supposed to operate against the Turkish naval forces and ensure Allied dominance in the Mediterranean. The Montenegrin army was intended for joint actions with the Serbian troops in Macedonia. The Allies, occupying an enveloping position in relation to the Turkish troops, intended to defeat them in the Balkans before reinforcements arrived. The Turkish command tried to hold back the onslaught of the Allies until reinforcements arrived. Considering Bulgaria the most dangerous enemy, Türkiye deployed major forces against it. grouping of its troops (185 thousand people and 756 op.).
The Montenegrin army together with 20 thousand. The Serbian Ibar detachment began operations against Turkish troops in the North. Thrace and North Albania. Bulgarian troops crossed the Bulgarian tour. border and, moving to the south, Oct. 22. started fighting with the tour. forces. 2nd bolg. army, being on the right flank of the Bulgarian group. troops, drove back the Turks and began the siege of Edirne (Adrianople). 1st and 3rd bolg. army, acting on the lion. flank, in a number of oncoming battles they pushed back the Turks, October 22-24. at Kirk-Kilis (Lozengrad) the 3rd round was defeated. corps and began to move south. direction. 29 Oct - 3 Nov A violent incident occurred at Lüleburgaz. battle, during which the 4th round was defeated. frame. Tour. the troops hastily retreated. Bolg. the command was unable to organize an energetic pursuit of the pr-ka. The Turks entrenched themselves in the Chataldzhin fortified positions (35-45 km west of Istanbul). Attempts bolg. troops 17 -18 Nov. They were not successful in mastering these positions. The front has stabilized here.
Tour in Macedonia. troops 23 Oct. launched an offensive against the 1st Serbian Army, but the Turkish attacks were repulsed. The next day, the Serb armies began a general offensive. 2nd Serbian army struck in the south-west. direction, creating a threat to the right flank of the tour. groups. The 1st Serbian Army launched an attack on Kumanovo and on 24 October. captured it, and the 3rd Serbian Army carried out a flank attack on Skopje (Uskub), which was occupied on October 26. Serbian troops quickly advanced to the south and on November 18. in interaction with the Greek. They took the city of Bitol (Monastir) in parts. Grouping tour. troops in Macedonia were defeated. Serbian units reached the Adriatic coast and took part, together with Montenegrin troops, in the siege of Shkoder (Scutari). Grech, the troops cleared Epirus of the Turks and besieged Ioannina. In South The Greeks won Macedonia on November 1-2. victory at Yenidzh and launched an attack on Thessaloniki, the garrison of which capitulated on November 9. The Greek fleet blocked the exit of the tour. naval forces from the Dardanelles and launched operations to capture islands in the Aegean Sea.
28 Nov Albanian independence was proclaimed. However, further military the successes of the allies did not meet the interests of the great powers. Russia, while supporting the countries of the Balkan Union, at the same time feared that the Bulgarians’ access to Istanbul would create unfavorable conditions for it when resolving the issue of the Black Sea Straits. Germany and Austria-Hungary did not want the strengthening of Serbia and Greece, considering them supporters of the Entente, and sought to prevent the defeat of Turkey, which they saw as their potential ally. Under pressure from the great powers on Dec. In 1912, a truce was concluded between Turkey, Bulgaria and Serbia.
Negotiations between the ambassadors of the warring powers began in London on the terms of a peace treaty. 23 Jan 1913 in Turkey there was a state. coup. The new government (the Young Turk Party) rejected the peace terms. 3 Feb The countries of the Balkan Union resumed hostilities. After new defeats the tour. army, which surrendered to Ioannina and Edirne (Adrianople) in March; in April 1913, the 2nd truce was concluded. Montenegro did not join this truce, and its troops continued the siege of Shkodra. The 1st Balkan War ended with the signing of the London Peace Treaty in May 1913, according to which Turkey lost almost all of its possessions in Europe. Despite the fact that the 1st Balkan War was fought in the name of the dynastic interests of the monarchs of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro, in the name of the nationalist aspirations of the bourgeoisie of these countries, it completed the liberation of the Balkans. peoples from tour. yoke. Objectively, this war was of a national liberation, progressive nature. “The Balkan War,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “is one of the links in the chain of world events that marks the collapse of the Middle Ages in Asia and Eastern Europe” (Complete collected works. Ed. 5th. T.23, p. 38).
Second Balkan War(June 29 - August 10, 1913) was fought between Bulgaria on the one hand, Serbia, Greece, Romania, Montenegro and Turkey on the other. It was caused by a sharp aggravation of contradictions between the former allies in the 1st Balkan War. Serbia, deprived of access to the Adriatic Sea, demanded compensation in Macedonia. Greece also laid claim to the territory. increase due to Bulgaria, which received most of the conquered lands. Romania made claims to Bulgaria over lands in Dobruja. The beginning of the 2nd Balkan War was accelerated by the intervention of the imperialist. powers, especially Austria-Hungary and Germany, who sought to undermine the influence of the Entente in the Balkans. Bulgaria, incited by the Austro-Germans. bloc, on the night of June 30, 1913, the war began. actions against Serbs and Greeks in Macedonia. Bulgarian offensive the armies were stopped. Serbian troops launched a counterattack and broke through the positions of the 4th Bulgarian. army. The fighting continued until July 6. Bolg. the troops were forced to retreat. On July 10, Romania opposed Bulgaria. One room. The corps occupied Dobruja, and the main strength room The armies, meeting no resistance, moved towards Sofia. On July 21, Türkiye, violating the terms of the London Peace Treaty of 1913, also began military operations against the Bulgarians. troops and occupied Edirne. Under the threat of complete defeat, Bulgaria capitulated on July 29. According to the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1913 (between Bulgaria on the one hand and Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Romania on the other), Bulgaria lost not only most of its acquisitions, but also the South. Dobruja, and according to the Treaty of Constantinople of 1913 (between Bulgaria and Turkey) it was forced to return Edirne to Turkey. As a result of the 2nd Balkan War, a new balance of power occurred on the Balkan Peninsula: Romania moved away from the Triple Alliance of 1882 and moved closer to the Entente, Bulgaria joined the Austro-German bloc. The Balkan Wars led to a further aggravation of international contradictions, accelerating the outbreak of the 1st World War.
In the Balkan Wars, some changes were determined in the methods of conducting combat operations, due to the development of military equipment, primarily an increase in the power of fire, range and rate of fire of artillery. systems, an increase in the number of machine guns (the Allies had 474 machine guns, the Turks - 556), the use of new types of weapons and military. equipment - airplanes (in addition to aerial reconnaissance, they began to be used for bombing), armored vehicles and radios. All this led to the transition to land. troops to sparse battle formations, the use of folds of terrain and trenches for shelter, the need arose to protect troops from aviation. The armies were deployed along the front for hundreds of kilometers. At the same time, the desire of the parties to group the main forces in the main directions became obvious. The advantage of maneuvering actions and strikes in converging directions (concentric strikes), detours and envelopments was confirmed. The increased fire capabilities of the troops strengthened the defense, so an important condition for a successful attack was the creation of fire superiority over the enemy. At the same time, the increase in the strength of the defense complicated the conduct of maneuver combat operations. The tendency to move towards positional forms of struggle has intensified. It was clearly determined that to achieve success in a coalition war, a well-established strategy and interaction between the allied forces is necessary.

Publ.: Klyuchnikov Yu.V., Sabanin A.V. International politics of modern times in treaties, notes and declarations. Ch.1.M., 1925.
Lit.: Lenin V.I. Events in the Balkans and Persia. - Complete collection of op. Ed. 5th. T. 17; Lenin V.I. Balkan peoples and European diplomacy. - Right there. T. 22; Lenin V.I. About the fox and the chicken coop. - Right there. T. 22; Lenin V.I. Shameful resolution. - Ibid. T. 22; Lenin V.I. A new chapter in world history. - Right there. T.22; Lenin V.I. Horrors of war. - Right there. T.22; Lenin V.I. Social significance of the Serbian-Bulgarian victories. - Right there. T.22; Lenin V.I. The Balkan War and bourgeois chauvinism. - Ibid. T. 23; History of diplomacy. Ed. 2nd. T. 2. M., 1963; History of Yugoslavia. T. 1. M., 1963; Vladimirov L. War and the Balkans. Pg., 1918; Zhebokritskiy V.A. Bulgaria during the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. Kyiv, 1961; Zhogov P.V. Diplomacy of Germany and Austria-Hungary and the First Balkan War of 1912-1913. M., 1969; Mogilevich A.A., Airapetyan M.E., On the path to the World War 1914-1918. L., 1940; Ryabinin A.A. Balkan War. St. Petersburg, 1913. D.V. Verzhkhovsky.

1. Serbia and Montenegro in the 1st Balkan War

2. The rise of the national liberation movement of the Yugoslav peoples in Austria-Hungary during the 1st Balkan War

3. 2nd Balkan War

Literature

1. Serbia and Montenegro in the 1st Balkan War

The focus of Serbian and other Balkan politicians seemed to be Macedonia, which was still part of Turkey. All this contributed to the conclusion of a defensive-offensive alliance between Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro. Bulgarian statesmen keenly felt the need to conclude a Balkan Union, primarily an agreement with Serbia, which would guarantee the security of Bulgaria from Turkey and Romania. The Serbian government, with the help of the Balkan Union, hoped to protect itself from the threats of a dual monarchy. Greece could not count on a successful fight against Turkey alone. Montenegro expressed its readiness to participate in any action directed against the Ottoman Empire.

The Italo-Turkish war that broke out in the fall of 1911 served as an external impetus for a series of negotiations on unity of action between the Balkan states. The initiator of negotiations on the Serbo-Bulgarian agreement was Serbia. In the fall of 1911, the foreign ministers of Serbia and Bulgaria (M. Milovanovic and I. Geshov) discussed this issue in detail during a personal meeting in Sofia. The Entente powers were notified of the negotiations that had begun. Russia showed the greatest interest in the successful completion of the negotiations. After mutual agreements, on February 29 (March 13), 1912, a secret treaty of friendship and alliance was signed between Bulgaria and Serbia. A secret annex to the treaty regulated the main political issues of the union. Joint actions against Turkey and the division of its Balkan possessions among the allies were envisaged. The territory of Macedonia was divided into three zones: two undisputed and one disputed. Bulgaria recognized Serbia and Montenegro's undisputed right to the lands north and west of Sharplanina. In turn, Serbia recognized the indisputable right of Bulgaria to the lands east of the Rhodope Mountains and the Struma River. The territory between these two zones remained disputed. The formation of an autonomous region here was allowed. The division of the disputed zone through the arbitration of the Russian Tsar was not ruled out.

Any Balkan state could join the treaty of friendship and alliance between Bulgaria and Serbia. Two and a half months later, on May 16/29, 1912, a defensive alliance treaty was concluded between Bulgaria and Greece, and at the end of September a military convention was signed; the agreement did not define the future borders between Bulgaria and Greece. In June 1912, negotiations between Bulgaria and Montenegro ended, which joined the Balkan Union. The Serbian-Montenegrin Treaty was also concluded.

A copy of the Serbo-Bulgarian treaty was sent to Russian Tsar Nicholas II for approval. The Tsar fully approved the treaty and promised assistance to the allies in the military field and in concluding loans in Paris.

Thus, the second military alliance in the history of the Balkan Peninsula was created, the purpose of which was to liberate a number of territories of the Balkan Peninsula from Turkish rule. Unlike the Balkan Union of the 60s. XIX century, the new alliance quickly moved into action, despite the restraining efforts of the Entente powers. The intervention of great power diplomacy in Belgrade, Sofia, Athens and Istanbul was unsuccessful. A clash between the Allies and Turkey was inevitable.

On October 9 (September 25), 1912, Montenegro was the first to begin hostilities. Nine days later, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece declared war on Turkey. The First Balkan War began, with the goal of completely liberating the Balkan Peninsula from the rule of the Ottoman Empire. The Entente powers were on the side of the Allies. The rulers of Germany and Austria-Hungary believed that Turkey would win the war and therefore declared their neutrality. The Allied troops outnumbered the Turkish army by more than two times. In total, the Allies mobilized 725 thousand people, and Turkey - 307 thousand.

The fighting took place in two main theaters - Western and Thracian. Overcoming the fierce resistance of the Turks, the Bulgarian troops managed to push the enemy almost to Istanbul (the Chataldzhi line 40 km from the capital). True, the Andrianopol fortress remained in the rear of the Bulgarian troops, which could not be taken.

Events developed even more successfully for the allies in the western theater of military operations - in Macedonia and the New Pazar Sanjak. Under the supreme command of King Peter and the chief of the general staff of the Serbian army, the talented commander R. Putnik, Serbian troops on October 10 (23) and 11 (24), 1912, in the battle of Kumanovo, completely defeated the Vardar Turkish army. This practically predetermined the outcome of the struggle. On November 2 (15) - November 6 (19), in a fierce, bloody battle near Bitol, Turkish troops suffered a second major defeat from the Serbs. Serbian troops liberated Macedonia and most of Albania. Montenegrin troops also operated successfully in close cooperation with the Serbian army. They liberated the Novo-Pazar sanjak and significant territory in northern Albania.

Greek troops occupied Epirus, Thessaly and South Macedonia. In their rear remained the unconquered Turkish fortress of Ioannina. Greek and Bulgarian troops approached the city of Thessaloniki almost simultaneously. On November 9, according to the new style, he was released.

Thus, in less than a month, the main forces of the Ottoman army were defeated by the Allied forces. The world was stunned by such a quick and unexpected outcome of the war. The great powers found themselves in a state of shock, from which they were able to recover only when peace was concluded between the warring parties. The Albanians took advantage of the defeat of the Turkish army and proclaimed the independence of Albania on November 15 (28), 1912 in Valona.

In November 1912, the Turkish government approached the allies with a proposal for a truce. The proposal was accepted and negotiations began in London in December. At the same time, a meeting of the ambassadors of the great powers was held in London, chaired by the British Foreign Minister Edward Gray. The Great Powers actively intervened in the conflict in the Balkans.

Final decisions on territorial redistribution in the Balkans continued to remain the prerogative of the great powers, whose representatives met in London in December 1912. The controversial issues were: the autonomy of Albania, the fate of Macedonia and the possibility of Serbia's access to the sea.

However, final decisions on territorial redistribution in the Balkans still remained the prerogative of the great powers, whose representatives gathered in December 1912 in London. The controversial issues were: the autonomy of Albania, the fate of Macedonia and the possibility of Serbia's access to the sea. In the winter of 1913, Turkish troops tried to resume hostilities, but were again defeated, and the allies occupied the last bastions of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans - the fortresses of Ioannina and Adrianople. Thus ended the First Balkan War. According to the decisions of the London Preliminary Treaty of May 30, 1913, the Albanian state was created. Serbia was thus deprived of hopes of access to the sea by annexing Northern Albania. Serbian nationalist circles called on the government to compensate for this failure by seizing as much of Macedonian territory as possible in order to move closer to the Aegean Sea. On June 1, 1913, Serbia entered into an agreement with Greece to divide a large part of Macedonia.

2. The rise of the national liberation movement of the Yugoslav peoples in Austria-Hungary during the 1st Balkan War

The situation was acute in the Yugoslav lands - in Dalmatia, Istria, Croatian Littoral and Bosnia - where the population was opposed to possible Austrian intervention in Balkan affairs. In this regard, the speech of the Croatian deputy from Dalmatia, Professor Tresic, in the Reichstag on November 29, 1912 is very indicative. Under the pressure of the sentiments that gripped Dalmatia, Tresic made an anti-government speech. They stated that the population of Dalmatia, in the event of an attack by Austria-Hungary on Serbia and Montenegro, would consider this war “as a war against the Croatian people.”

In the Balkan Wars (1912-1913), Serbia's goal was to expel the Ottomans from Europe and secure access to the sea through Albania (which did not yet exist as a sovereign state at the beginning of the war). The war of the Balkan allies against Turkey began on October 17, 1912. The successes of the allies aroused the enthusiasm of the Yugoslavs of Austria-Hungary and the despondency of its ruling circles. The monarchy carried out partial mobilization.

At the end of November, Serbian troops occupied Drach, reaching the Adriatic. The monarchy and Italy sought to remove the Serbs from the sea, and this created the danger of their military intervention. To appease Croatia, Tsuwai was placed on "leave" and replaced by an official for the time being. The Commissariat was retained for the duration of the war in the Balkans, making public expressions of solidarity with the Balkan allies impossible. But in Croatia they raised funds for the Serbian Red Cross. In Dalmatia, the anti-Austrian atmosphere reached its climax. Smodlaka in the Vienna Reichsrat exclaimed: “This is our holy war!” In connection with the capture of Thessaloniki by the Greeks, demonstrations were held in Split and Sibenik led by mayors, deputies of the Sabor and the Reichsrat. The councils of these cities were disbanded. This caused demonstrations in Zadar and Dubrovnik, and unrest in a number of cities. The Montenegrin offensive on Shkodra (Skadar) was encouraging, but the powers forced the Montenegrins to withdraw.

Emergency measures were carried out by the authorities in Bosnia as well. In Dalmatia, the concept of “Yugoslav nationalism” was established. Progressives who became close to the “nationalist youth” became radicalized. Their newspaper "Sloboda", edited by O. Tartaglia, became the organ of young people subjected to arrests and other persecution.

Balkan Wars: Europe's Uncut Gordian Knot

The Balkans have always traditionally been considered too confusing and therefore no less explosive corner of Europe. Ethnic, political and economic contradictions have not been resolved here to this day. However, a little more than 100 years ago, when the political picture not only in the Balkans, but throughout the rest of Europe was somewhat different, it was in this area that two wars raged, which became tangible harbingers of a larger conflict.

Prerequisites for the conflict: what led to it?

The roots of the Balkan Wars should be sought not even in the Turkish enslavement of the Balkan peoples, but in an earlier time. Thus, contradictions between peoples were observed here back in the days of Byzantium, when such strong states as Bulgaria and Serbia existed in the Balkans. The Ottoman invasion in a certain way united the Balkan Slavs against the Turks, who became the main enemies of the Balkan Slavs for almost five centuries.

After the rise of Balkan nationalism in the 19th century

Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria declared independence from the decrepit Ottoman Empire and became its opponents. However, this did not mean that all contradictions in the Balkans were resolved. On the contrary, there were still many lands on the Balkan Peninsula that were claimed by new states. It was this circumstance that made the conflict between the Ottoman Empire and its former possessions almost inevitable.

At the same time, the great European powers were also interested in weakening the Ottoman Empire. Russia, Italy, Austria-Hungary and France had their sights on a number of territories of Turkey and sought, having weakened it through the hands of others, to annex these territories. Thus, in 1908, Austria-Hungary managed to annex Bosnia, which previously belonged to the Ottoman Empire, and Italy in 1911 invaded Libya. Thus, the moment for the liberation of the Slavic lands from Ottoman rule is almost ripe.

Russia played a major role in the formation of the anti-Turkish alliance. It was with her assistance that an alliance was concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912, which was soon joined by Greece and Montenegro. Although there were a number of contradictions between the countries of the Balkan Union, the main enemy was Turkey, which united these countries.

The Turkish government understood that an alliance between the Slavic states of the Balkans would be directed primarily against the Ottoman Empire. In this regard, in the autumn of 1912, military preparations began in the Balkan part of the country, which, however, dragged on quite a lot. Turkey's plans provided for the defeat of opponents in parts: first it was planned to defeat Bulgaria, then Serbia, and then Montenegro and Greece. For this purpose, Turkish troops on the Balkan Peninsula were consolidated into two armies: the Western, located in Albania and Macedonia, and the Eastern, designed to hold Thrace and Istanbul. In total, the Turkish troops amounted to about 450 thousand people and 900 guns.

Map of the Balkan Union and theater of operations. The unfortunate configuration of the border for the Ottoman Empire is clearly visible. With a successful attack on Kavala, the Ottoman troops inevitably found themselves in the “sack”, as was demonstrated in 1912

In turn, the Allies concentrated their forces on the borders of the Ottoman Empire. The plan was to strike simultaneously so that the Ottoman defenses would collapse and the country would suffer a crushing defeat. In this case, the war should have lasted no more than a month. The total number of Allied troops was approximately 630 thousand people with 1,500 guns. The advantage was clearly on the side of the anti-Ottoman forces.

War has become a fact (October 1912)

However, the organized simultaneous strike was prevented by a premature attack by Montenegro. Thus, Montenegrin troops concentrated on the border were drawn into local clashes with the Turkish army from the first days of October. By October 8, these clashes predictably escalated into a full-scale war, which was confirmed in a message to the Turkish Foreign Ministry announcing the start of war between Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire.

The Montenegrin army launched an offensive in a southern direction, with the goal of capturing the territory of Albania, which the country claimed. And this offensive achieved some success: after 10 days, the troops advanced 25-30 kilometers, inflicting serious losses on the Turkish army.

On October 18, 1912, Serbia and Bulgaria declared war on the Ottoman Empire. On October 19, Greece joined them. Thus began the First Balkan War.

Bulgarian troops immediately rushed to the coast of the Aegean Sea to capture part of Thrace, populated mainly by Bulgarians, and to interrupt communication between the Eastern and Western Turkish armies. In front of the Bulgarian army there were troops that were not fully mobilized and did not have time to occupy field fortifications. These circumstances significantly played into the hands of the Bulgarians. As a result, already on the fourth day after the declaration of war (October 23), the Bulgarian troops managed to blockade Edirne and almost come close to the city of Kirklareli (Eastern Thrace). Thus, a threat appeared directly to the capital of the Ottoman Empire - Istanbul.

Meanwhile, Serbian and Montenegrin troops united into a combined group and launched an offensive in southern Serbia and Macedonia. On October 21, 1912, units of the 1st Serbian Army approached the city of Kumanovo and were preparing to capture it. However, large Ottoman forces from the Western Army were also located here. 120 thousand Serbs were opposed by approximately 180 thousand Turks, who were later to be joined by another 40 thousand soldiers. The 2nd Army advanced from the Pristina area to the Serbian troops as reinforcements.

The Turks attacked on October 23. Their daytime attack, although it achieved some successes, failed to overthrow the Serbian troops. Additional difficulties were caused by foggy weather, which prevented the effective use of artillery. Only at night, when the fog cleared, artillery was brought into the battle. At the same time, the Serbs counterattacked so successfully that the results of the daytime attack by the Turks were essentially nullified.

The next day, Serbian troops went on the attack. The Turks were completely unprepared for this, which decided the outcome of the battle. As a result, Turkish troops began to retreat deeper into Macedonia, losing most of their artillery. The defeat of the Ottoman troops at the Battle of Kumanovo opened the way for the Serbs and their allies to Macedonia, Albania and Epirus.

The war flares up (October-November 1912)

Meanwhile, the troops of the 1st and 3rd Bulgarian armies were given the task of capturing the city of Kirklareli (or Lozengrad). Having captured this city, the Bulgarians could cut off the Western Turkish army from the metropolis and significantly simplify the task of taking over Turkish territories in the western Balkans for the allies.

The Ottoman command had high hopes for the defense of Kirklareli. The city garrison was inspected by the German General von der Goltz, who gave very optimistic forecasts regarding the defense. However, the Turkish troops themselves were not sufficiently prepared, and their morale left much to be desired.

As a result of the battle under the walls of the city, the Bulgarian troops, with a skillful maneuver, managed to cut off the bulk of the Turkish troops from the city and entered the almost empty city on October 24, 1912. This defeat seriously demoralized not only the troops, but also the government of the Ottoman Empire. In turn, in Bulgaria, the victory at Lozengrad caused a great patriotic upsurge. After stubborn fighting, the Bulgarian troops approached the Chataldzhin defensive line of the Turks, where they stopped.

The Eastern Army of the Turks, after the defeat in the Battle of Kumanovo, began to retreat first to Skopje and then to the city of Bitola. However, here the Turkish troops were intercepted by the Serbs, and a bloody battle ensued. As a result, through the joint efforts of Serbian and Bulgarian troops, the Turkish Western Army was destroyed in early November 1912.

At this time, Greek troops, who began active hostilities on October 18, managed to capture the city of Thessaloniki and approached southern Macedonia. At the same time, the Greek fleet scored a number of victories over the Ottoman fleet, which also raised the spirit of the Balkan Union.

After the virtual destruction of the Western and Eastern Turkish armies, the Chataldzhin direction became the decisive front of the First Balkan War. Here, from early to mid-November, Bulgarian troops made a number of unsuccessful attempts to break through the Turkish defenses, but failed to do so. The situation has reached a dead end.

Peace talks or necessary respite? (November 1912 – May 1913)

In November 1912, a situation arose on the fronts of the First Balkan War in which a truce was simply inevitable. The troops of the Balkan Union were bogged down in the siege of a number of Ottoman fortresses, and the Ottoman troops had practically no strength for active operations. There was also a threat of intervention in the conflict by Austria-Hungary, which was pursuing its interests in the Balkans.

Thus, already in November, fighting along almost the entire front line ceased, and on December 26, peace negotiations began in London. These negotiations were quite difficult, mainly due to Turkey’s reluctance to suffer heavy territorial losses. At the same time, in Turkey itself, political tension only grew, which resulted in a coup on January 23, 1913, when power in the country was taken by the “Young Turks” - a movement that sought to restore the former prestige and power of the Ottoman Empire. As a result of this coup, the Ottoman Empire ceased participation in peace negotiations, and the fighting of the First Balkan War resumed at 19:00 on February 3, 1913.

After this, the Ottoman troops, who managed to concentrate in the Chataldzhi area (Istanbul direction) during the truce, went on the offensive against the Bulgarian troops. However, the density of troops here was high, and the attempt to break through was reduced to positional battles, in which the Turkish army got bogged down and was defeated.

In March 1913, Bulgarian troops, having exhausted the Turks besieged in Adrianople, suddenly began an assault on the fortress. The Turkish soldiers were taken by surprise, which decided the outcome of the assault. On March 13, Bulgaria captured Adrianople.

Simultaneously with the events in the eastern Balkans, the siege of the city of Shkodra by Montenegrin troops continued. The city was besieged at the very beginning of the war, but thanks to the stubborn defense of the Turks, they continued to hold out. By spring, the Ottoman garrison of Shkoder was already sufficiently exhausted that its new commander, Essad Pasha (the previous one, Huseyn Riza Pasha, was killed) began negotiations on the surrender of the fortress to the Montenegrins. The result of these negotiations was the occupation of the city of Shkodra by Montenegro on April 23, 1913.

The end of the war or the first act? (May-June 1913)

Since the beginning of May, there was actually a lull at the front, which was used to resume peace negotiations in London. This time, even the Young Turks understood that the war was virtually lost for the Ottoman Empire, and the country needed a respite.

On May 30, a peace treaty was signed. According to it, almost all the territories lost by the Ottoman Empire, except Albania, passed to the countries of the Balkan Union. Albania was coming under the control of the great powers (Italy and Austria-Hungary), and its future was to be decided in the near future. Türkiye also lost Crete, which went to Greece.

Also, one of the main points of the London Peace Treaty was that the countries of the Balkan Union themselves would divide the conquered territories among themselves. It was this point that became the cause of many strife and, ultimately, the split of the Balkan Union. It is possible that this clause was adopted with the active assistance of Germany or Austria-Hungary, who did not want to strengthen the pro-Russian Balkan Union.

Immediately after the war, the first disputes arose between yesterday's allies. Thus, the main dispute was regarding the division of Macedonia, which Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece had plans for. The Bulgarian government dreamed of Greater Bulgaria (which caused tension in relations with other countries of the Balkan Union); in Serbia, as a result of the victory, society became significantly radicalized. There was also an open dispute between Bulgaria and Greece regarding the city of Thessaloniki and Thrace. In view of all these disputes, the situation was such that Bulgaria found itself alone against all its former allies.

The active diplomatic efforts of Germany and Austria-Hungary, which inspired the Serbian government that Serbia had more rights to Macedonia, also added fuel to the fire. At the same time, the Bulgarian government was told the same thing, but diametrically opposed. Only Russian diplomats called for a diplomatic solution to the issues, but it was too late: a new conflict ripened quite quickly, and before the peace treaty was signed in London, the Second Balkan War was already looming on the horizon.

June 1913 is characterized by the transfer and deployment of troops on the Serbian-Bulgarian border. In this aspect, Serbia had a number of advantages, since a large part of the Bulgarian troops were transferred from the Chataldzhi area, which took time. During the First Balkan War, the Serbian troops operated nearby, so they managed to concentrate earlier.

At the end of June, Serbian and Bulgarian troops came into contact and the situation became critical. Russia made one last attempt to maintain peace and convened negotiations in St. Petersburg. However, these negotiations were not destined to materialize: on June 29, Bulgaria attacked Serbia without declaring war.

New war (June-July 1913)

Bulgarian troops launched an attack on Macedonia with the forces of the 4th Army. Initially they were successful and managed to defeat the advanced units of the Serbs. However, then the 1st Serbian Army moved towards the Bulgarians, which stopped the rapid advance of enemy troops. In July, the Bulgarian army was gradually “squeezed out” from Serbian Macedonia.

Also on June 29, the 2nd Bulgarian Army launched an offensive towards the city of Thessaloniki with the goal of occupying the city and defeating the Greek army. However, even here the Bulgarians, after initial successes, faced defeat. The Greek army attempted to encircle the Bulgarian army in the area of ​​​​the city of Kilkis, but this only led to its displacement back to the border. The Bulgarians' attempt to counterattack also ended in failure, and after a series of defeats, the 2nd Bulgarian Army was demoralized and began to retreat. Greek troops managed to capture a number of settlements in Macedonia and Thrace (Strumica, Kavala) and came into contact with the 3rd Serbian Army.

Bulgaria became bogged down in the conflict, and its hopes for a quick victory were dashed. The government understood that there was little chance of victory, but continued hostilities in the hope that Serbia and Greece would become tired and a more acceptable peace. However, third countries did not fail to take advantage of this difficult situation.

Bulgaria’s difficult relations with Romania, which had long laid claim to Southern Dobruja, as well as with the Ottoman Empire (for obvious reasons), also played a role. Taking advantage of the fact that Bulgaria was drawn into heavy fighting, these countries began active military operations against it. On July 12, 1913, Turkish troops crossed the border with Bulgaria in Thrace. On July 14, Romanian troops also crossed the Bulgarian border.

The Turkish army managed to capture Adrianople by July 23 and defeat almost all the Bulgarian troops in Thrace. Romania did not encounter resistance due to the fact that all Bulgarian forces were concentrated on the Serbian and Greek fronts. Romanian troops moved freely towards the capital of Bulgaria - the city of Sofia.

Realizing the hopelessness of further resistance, on July 29, 1913, the Bulgarian government signed an armistice. The Balkan wars are over.

Results of wars and losses of sides

On August 10, 1913, a new peace treaty was signed in Bucharest. According to him, Bulgaria lost a number of territories in Macedonia and Thrace, retaining only part of eastern Thrace with the city of Kavala. Also, territories in Dobruja were seized in favor of Romania. All Macedonian territories seized from Turkey as a result of the London Peace Treaty went to Serbia. Greece secured the city of Thessaloniki and the island of Crete.

Also, on September 29, 1913, a separate peace treaty was signed between Bulgaria and Turkey in Istanbul (since Turkey was not a member of the Balkan Union). He returned part of Thrace with the city of Adrianople (Edirne) to Turkey.

An accurate assessment of the losses of countries separately during the First and Second Balkan Wars is significantly complicated by the fact that the time interval between these conflicts is very short. That is why most often they operate with total data on losses.

Thus, Bulgaria's losses during both wars amounted to approximately 185 thousand people killed, wounded and died from wounds. Serbian losses amounted to approximately 85 thousand people. Greece lost 50 thousand people killed, died from wounds and diseases and wounded. Montenegrin losses were the smallest and amounted to about 10.5 thousand people. The Ottoman Empire suffered the greatest losses - approximately 350 thousand people.

Such high losses of Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire are explained by the fact that both of these countries at different stages of the conflicts fought against several countries, being inferior to them numerically. Also, the brunt of the fighting in the First Balkan War also fell on Bulgaria and Turkey, which led to their greater casualties and, as a consequence, greater exhaustion.

Among the factors that influenced the defeat of Turkey and then Bulgaria, the following should be noted:

1. Unsuccessful concentration of Ottoman troops on the eve of the First Balkan War (communications between the Western Army and the metropolis were interrupted in the first weeks of the conflict);
2. Ambitious plans of the Ottoman (and then Bulgarian) command, which were, in fact, impracticable;
3. A war against several countries alone, which, given the resources available to both the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, was tantamount to defeat;
4. Tensions with non-belligerent neighbors. This manifested itself most tragically for Bulgaria in 1913.

As a result of the Balkan Wars, a new serious force appeared on the Balkan Peninsula - Serbia. However, a number of problems related primarily to the interests of the great powers in this region remained unresolved. It was these problems that ultimately led to the crisis, which soon grew into the First World War. Thus, the Balkan Wars failed to smooth out the situation in the region, but ultimately only aggravated it.

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